Chapter 16: Galatians

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Galatians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the letter is written by Paul to Gentile Christians in the province of Galatia, though it is not clear where in that province the recipients lived. If they are true “Galatians” in the north part of the province, the letter would be dated late in Paul’s missionary career, but if they are simply “residents of Galatia” in the southern part of the province, the letter could be Paul’s earliest existing composition. In either case, Paul is angry with the Galatians because they are considering accepting circumcision and other Jewish laws in order to maintain or improve their relationship with God.

Before dealing with the crisis at hand, Paul needs to defend his apostolic authority against certain charges that opponents have made against him. In doing so, he reveals a bit about his autobiography and relates an incident at Antioch in which he opposed Peter and representatives of James. The point is that he answers to no one but Jesus Christ, even though Peter and James do in fact approve of his Gentile mission (something his opponents have apparently denied).

Paul argues from Scripture and his own theology that those who are in Christ do not need to be circumcised or to keep the Jewish law. They are justified or put right with God by faith, not by works of the law. God’s action in Christ has revealed that God’s favor is universal in scope, so there is no reason for gentile believers to become members of a now nonexistent “favored group.” Paul believes that a radical shift in history has occurred and that circumcision and the Jewish law belong to a bygone era “before faith came.” Furthermore, the Holy Spirit now produces in Christian believers what the Jewish law merely described but could not effect.

Study Questions

• What are the “north and south Galatian theories,” and what is the significance of those theories for (a) dating Paul’s letter to the Galatians and (b) resolving tensions between Galatians and the book of Acts?
• What is meant by the term “Judaizers” and how might Paul’s opponents in Galatia fit the description intended by that term?
• What two responses does Paul make to the charge that his version of the gospel was acquired secondhand and does not accord with the view of true apostles?
• Why did Paul react so strongly to Peter’s conduct at Antioch, and what was the basic substance of his objection to the “compromise” model adopted there by people like Peter and Barnabas?
• List four key points that Paul offers in making his case for why gentile Christians should not accept circumcision or commit themselves to the Jewish law.

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Chapter 17: Ephesians

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the content of Ephesians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the work is presented in modern New Testaments as a letter of Paul to believers in Ephesus. A good deal of information is available concerning this setting, where Paul worked extensively, and where the temple of Artemis was a revered wonder of the world. There is some evidence, however, to suggest that Ephesians may have been a “circular letter” sent to multiple locations. Many scholars, furthermore, believe the letter is a pseudepigraphical work written after Paul’s death. In any case, it has close parallels to Colossians and could have been fashioned either by Paul or by someone else to present a more generic version of what is said there.

The dominant theme of Ephesians seems to be that God’s plan to unite all things in Christ is being accomplished in two stages: first, the crucifixion of Jesus effected forgiveness of sins and, now, his exaltation to heaven allows him to eradicate the influence of hostile spiritual powers. Ephesians claims that the church has been elevated with Christ such that it evinces a divinely granted unity. Believers enjoy an idealized status that empowers them to triumph over forces of evil. In a more pragmatic vein, however, the letter also offers down-to-earth advice regarding family life, moral behavior, and protection from the devil.

Study Questions

• What is known of the ancient city of Ephesus and Paul’s ministry there? Explain why this information may or may not be helpful for interpreting the New Testament letter to the Ephesians.
• What two observations become evident when Ephesians is compared to other letters attributed to Paul? Based on these observations, what scenarios have scholars suggested regarding circumstances of the book’s composition?
• Discuss the theme of “spiritual beings” evident in the letter to the Ephesians: what were these beings, what does this letter say has happened regarding them, and why does this matter for Christian believers?
• What is the mysterious plan of God according to Ephesians and what is the primary sign that this plan has been or is being fulfilled?
• What does the letter to the Ephesians have to say about the church? Cite at least three affirmations about the church that receive particular emphasis in this letter.
• How is the “household code” contained in Ephesians 5:21–6:9 similar to such codes found in Greco-Roman literature in general? How does it differ from the codes found in those other writings?
• Describe what Ephesians has to say regarding the current idealized state of believers and indicate why some scholars think this contradicts what Paul says in other letters. What would be a possible explanation for the discrepancy?

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Chapter 18: Philippians

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Philippians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the letter is written by Paul from prison to the Macedonian congregation in Philippi (often identified as the first Christian church in Europe). It is notable for its especially joyful character, and it serves as a good example of a “friendship letter.” The date of composition depends upon where Paul is thought to have been in prison when the letter was written: if he was in Ephesus, it could be one of his earliest letters, but if he was in Rome, it could be one of his latest.

Theological interest in Philippians centers on the “Christ hymn” quoted by Paul in chapter 2. This liturgical material provides what might be the earliest Christian reference to belief in the incarnation and preexistence of Christ. Paul’s primary interest in quoting the hymn, however, is to encourage the virtue of humility, exemplified by Jesus in taking human form and dying on a cross. Timothy, Epaphroditus, and Paul himself also provide role model examples for this prime virtue. The letter to Philippians also reflects upon the inevitability and potential value of human suffering. Further, it stresses the fellowship that Paul experiences with the Philippian believers.

Study Questions

• Describe Paul’s relationship with the Philippian church: how and when did he found this congregation, what was their relationship like, and what might have prompted Paul to write to them at this particular time?
• Outline what the “Christ hymn” details as stages in the career of Christ. Why does Paul cite this hymn as an illustration for the Philippians?
• What does Paul mean by “humility,” and how might this virtue be expressed in Christian living? List at least three examples Paul offers the Philippians as persons who model this virtue for them.
• Why should the Philippians view suffering for Christ as a favor or privilege from God?

Suffering

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Chapter 19: Colossians

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Colossians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the book presents itself as a letter written from Paul in prison to believers in Colossae, who were presumably evangelized by Paul’s associate Epaphras. The letter has close connections to Philemon (as well as to Ephesians), and it might be assumed that Paul sent those two (or three) letters at the same time. Some scholars, however, think that Colossians is pseudepigraphical. In any case, it contends against a philosophy that seems to involve asceticism and an unhealthy interest in spiritual beings or experiences.

The letter of Colossians is notable in that it presents a cosmic image of Christ as Lord and Creator of the universe. This theme is especially developed in a poetic passage called “the Christ hymn.” Colossians also evinces what theologians call “realized eschatology,” maintaining that blessings usually associated with the end times are already available to believers through faith. Furthermore, Colossians contends that the secret to attaining knowledge and true spiritual maturity involves simply remaining in the community of faith and allowing God to give growth naturally.

Study Questions

• Discuss the ways in which Colossians can be compared to (a) Ephesians; (b) Philemon; and (c) Paul’s undisputed letters. What possible scenarios do scholars envision regarding the letter’s composition on the basis of these comparisons?
• What was “the Colossian heresy”? What tenets or features of this philosophy appear to be reflected in the warnings and affirmations that this letter offers its readers?
• How are ideas expressed in Paul’s undisputed letters understood to be “developed” or taken to another level (by Paul or someone else) in Colossians? Give at least three examples.
• Describe the distinctive image of Christ presented in Colossians 1:15–20 and indicate what the liturgical character of this material suggests regarding Christian doctrine at the time.
• What is “realized eschatology” and why is Colossians often cited as an example of this theological perspective? Illustrate the point with reference to the claim that Christ has disarmed spiritual powers and made a public display of his triumph over them.
• How does Colossians employ baptismal imagery in its discussion of spiritual growth? What does this letter suggest is the surest way for believers to grow to full maturity?

Realized Eschatology

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Chapter 20: 1 Thessalonians

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 1 Thessalonians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, 1 Thessalonians is usually regarded as the earliest of Paul’s letters, written to Gentile Christians in Macedonia within a few years of their conversion. Paul apparently founded this church around the year 50, while practicing a trade in the marketplace at Thessalonika and proclaiming the gospel as he worked. According to the letter, the Thessalonian Christians are being harassed and persecuted by their neighbors, just as other Christians have suffered harassment and persecution from Jews.

In the letter, Paul reflects extensively on the conduct of his ministry, perhaps as an example to the Thessalonians of how they should continue ministering to others. He emphasizes the depth of his devotion to them and the nobility of his motives. Paul also seeks to restore the Thessalonians’ sense of honor, stressing the high estimation they hold in his eyes and in the eyes of God. He offers them standard advice on such matters as sexual morality and the need to work for a living. Then, he takes up the topic that may have necessitated the letter: the Thessalonians are concerned about the fate of those who have died, and Paul explains that the dead in Christ will be raised prior to the parousia, such that both the dead and the living will be caught up in the clouds to meet Christ when he returns.

Study Questions

• Describe the process though which the apostle Paul would have arrived in Thessalonika and gone about establishing a Christian church. How would he (as a Jew) have made contact with potential gentile converts and how would he have persuaded such pagans to be attracted to the Christian faith?
• What does Paul say about Jews in 1 Thessalonians? How do these remarks compare to what he says elsewhere? How have they been received throughout Christian history, and how are they read by Christian theologians today?
• Summarize what Paul says in 1 Thessalonians regarding the conduct of his ministry while he was among them. Give three reasons that have been suggested for why Paul would spend time reminding his converts of these matters.
• Discuss the suffering of the Thessalonians against the background of “honor and shame.” How does Paul attempt to assuage that suffering in this letter?
• How does Paul respond to the Thessalonians concern regarding those who have died? How does this compare to a “rapture theology” popular among many modern Christians?

The Rapture

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Chapter 21: 2 Thessalonians

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 2 Thessalonians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, 2 Thessalonians is presented as a letter from the apostle Paul written to address a rumor of the Thessalonian church that “the day of the Lord” had already come. Two different historical scenarios may be imagined as a background for this letter: If it is an authentic letter of Paul, then it was probably sent soon after 1 Thessalonians. If it is pseudepigraphical, it may have been written decades later to present a more precise apocalyptic timetable for the parousia than had been developed in Paul’s lifetime.

Paul assures the Thessalonians that those who cause them suffering will be punished in the final judgment. But Paul squelches the rumor that “the day of the Lord is already here” by explaining that a “lawless one” who is currently being restrained must first be revealed before a series of apocalyptic events culminating in the parousia and judgment can take place. Finally, Paul offers the Thessalonians practical advice on a problem within the community: he tells them that busybodies who will not work for a living should not be allowed to take advantage of the community’s hospitality.

Study Questions

• Summarize two possible scenarios for the historical circumstances in which 2 Thessalonians might have been composed.
• Outline the apocalyptic events that, according to 2 Thessalonians, will occur at the end of time. Include reference to the restrainer and the lawless one. What points of contact does this teaching have with other New Testament writings?
• Compare the teaching of 2 Thessalonians regarding “idleness” with that of the Didache (a nonbiblical Christian writing from the late first century). What do these writings reveal about a common problem in the early church?

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Chapter 22: The Pastoral Letters: 1-2 Timothy, Titus

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers brief overviews of all three Pastoral Letters, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, three distinct scenarios have been proposed regarding the composition of the Pastoral Letters. If they are authentic compositions of Paul, the historical situations they presuppose must either be regarded as instances that are not otherwise mentioned in what the Bible says of Paul’s biography (scenario one) or as instances that fit into a “second career” for Paul after the time when he is traditionally thought to have died (scenario two). If they are pseudepigraphical letters, they would come from a later time period, reflecting concerns of an increasingly institutional church (scenario three).

In general, the Pastoral Letters are concerned with the appointment of church leaders, with more attention to specifying qualifications for offices than responsibilities. The qualifications emphasize moral character as well as doctrinal orthodoxy, and there is a notable concern for choosing leaders who will be socially respectable. These letters are also concerned with stemming the tide of false teaching in the church, and they seek to do so primarily by denouncing and silencing the heretics rather than by engaging those opponents in debate. The Pastoral Letters have also attracted much attention in modern churches due to the negative stance they take toward women in ministry. Second Timothy, finally, presents Paul’s words on the topic of suffering shame for the gospel, indicating how the good news can be proclaimed even in a context of humiliation.

Study Questions

• Describe the historical situation that is presumed for each of the three Pastoral Letters and indicate why those situations prove to be somewhat problematic when scholars try to fit them into a biography of Paul based on information available in his undisputed letters and Acts.
• What do we know about the individuals to whom the Pastoral Letters are ostensibly addressed? Provide brief biographical sketches of what other books of the New Testament tell us about these two companions of Paul: Timothy and Titus.
• Recount three scenarios for the composition of the Pastoral Letters, indicating the significance of each scenario for dating the letters and fitting them into early church history.
• What church offices are named in the Pastoral Letters, and what qualifications are indicated as appropriate for these? Cite at least five characteristics or credentials that these letters indicate a person should have in order to be a leader in the church.
• What was the office of “widows” in the early church, and what problems seem to have arisen with regard to that office? How does 1 Timothy seek to address those problems?
• Summarize what the Pastoral Letters say about a “false teaching” that was rampant in the church and indicate how these letters attempt to deal with that teaching.
• What do the Pastoral Letters suggest as appropriate roles for women in the church? How has this advice been understood in modern Christianity?
• List four ways in which 2 Timothy suggests the gospel can be proclaimed in contexts of persecution and humiliation.

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Chapter 23: Philemon

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Philemon, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the letter was written by Paul from prison to Philemon, a wealthy church member in Colossae. The date of composition depends on where Paul is thought to have been imprisoned at the time, but, in any case, the purpose of the letter is to request that Philemon be generous and compassionate in welcoming back a slave, Onesimus, whom he probably believes has wronged him. Beyond this, the letter hints strongly that Philemon allow Onesimus to return to Paul.

Scholars often examine this letter as a paradigm for rhetorical strategies, noting the measures Paul takes to persuade Philemon to do as he wishes. The letter is also the focus of attention concerning Paul’s attitude toward slavery. Paul was bound by Roman law to return Onesimus if in fact the latter had run away from his master, but there was also provision in Roman law for such a slave to seek sanctuary with a master’s friend, which may be what Onesimus has done with Paul. Most scholars think that Paul probably found slavery in principle to be antithetical to the Christian gospel, but they acknowledge that Paul does not seem to have condemned the institution outright or to have prohibited it among Christians.

Study Questions

• Summarize the story that apparently lies behind Paul’s letter to Philemon: What has happened regarding the slave Onesimus? Why is Paul now writing this letter to Onesimus’s master?
• What was slavery like in the Roman world, and what provisions did Roman law offer a slave who was on the outs with his or her master?
• How does Paul seek to persuade Philemon to do as he wishes? List at least four “persuasive tactics” Paul employs to influence Philemon’s compliance.
• Discuss Paul’s attitude toward slavery, based on this letter and other references to slavery in Pauline epistles.

Slavery in the New Testament World

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Chapter 24: Hebrews

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Hebrews, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, Hebrews is viewed as an anonymous letter written by a highly educated, Hellenistic Jewish Christian to Christian believers who have what the author regards as an unhealthy interest in embracing facets of Jewish religion or faith.

Hebrews seeks to articulate the continuity between Christianity and Judaism while emphasizing the supremacy of the Christian faith as providing fulfillment of what Judaism could only promise. The book is especially noted for its Christology; it presents Jesus as totally divine and yet fully human in a manner that would become standard for orthodox Christianity. The book also draws on a distinctive image for Jesus, presenting him as a high priest after the order of Melchizedek. This image is then coupled with the more traditional notion of Jesus as the sacrificial animal whose blood brings forgiveness. Hebrews draws on Platonic thought in its articulation of a heavenly sanctuary for which the earthly tabernacle (and temple) offer but shades of reality. In a pastoral vein, the book directs its readers to find God’s Sabbath rest through Christ, to consider themselves as pilgrims on a journey, and to recognize the potential value of human suffering. Otherwise, the book of Hebrews has been problematic for Christian theology in that it seems to indicate that there is no possibility of repentance or salvation for those who become apostate and then wish to return.

Study Questions

• Describe the intended recipients for the letter to the Hebrews. List at least six things that the letter reveals about its presumed audience.
• Indicate two ways in which Hebrews claims that Christianity is continuous with Judaism and two ways in which Hebrews claims that Christianity is superior to Judaism.
• Why is the humanity of Jesus important to the author of Hebrews? Cite three reasons given in this book for why the humanity of Christ is theologically important.
• Who is Melchizedek, and why is he important to the argument presented in Hebrews?
• Explain what is meant by the claim in Hebrews that, compared to historic Judaism, Christ is a better priest who offers a better sacrifice in a better sanctuary.
• What three examples should the readers of Hebrews keep in mind when troubles beset them and they are tempted to abandon their pilgrimage of faith?
• What does Hebrews teach concerning apostasy that has been controversial in Christianity? How have Christian theologians attempted to deal with this?

Honor and Shame

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Chapter 25: James

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of James, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the book has traditionally been regarded as a letter from James the brother of Jesus to Jewish Christians who live outside of Palestine. Some scholars think the letter is actually pseudepigraphical, but in any case, it does reflect a Jewish Christian perspective influenced by Israelite wisdom tradition, Greco-Roman diatribe, and the teachings of Jesus.

The letter of James encourages its readers to develop a positive outlook on trials and temptations, including temptations to sin, which, when resisted, strengthen their faith. The letter also contrasts “wisdom from above” with worldly wisdom and urges its readers not to be double-minded in trying to hold to both. Most notably, James addresses the issue of “faith and works” and appears to contradict what Paul says about people being made righteous by faith alone. Most scholars, however, assume that James means something different by “faith” (and possibly by “works”) than Paul did, such that the apparent disagreement is largely one of semantics. Finally, the letter of James exhibits pronounced concern for the poor and an attendant hostility toward the rich.

Study Questions

• Summarize what is known about James, the brother of Jesus. How is he presented in the New Testament, and what do we know of him from other sources?
• Give two ways in which James exhibits common features of Wisdom literature, providing an example of each.
• What is the “wisdom from above” about which James speaks, and how does one acquire it? Give half a dozen illustrations of what would characterize people who possess such wisdom.
• Compare and contrast what the letter of James says about “faith and works” with what is said about “faith and works” in Paul’s letters. How might the two perspectives be reconciled?
• What marks a person as “poor” according to the letter of James, and what marks a person as “rich”? What advice does James give the church concerning the poor? What does James suggest rich people ought to do?

The Poor in James

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Chapter 26: 1 Peter

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 1 Peter, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the letter presents itself as offering pastoral advice from the apostle Peter to gentile Christians in Asia Minor who are suffering humiliation and hardships. Many scholars believe the letter is pseudepigraphical but allow that it may represent a “Petrine perspective” typical of the apostle’s beliefs. First Peter is regarded as exemplary of “mainstream Christianity,” offering few original insights, but broadly expressive of what would have been common Christian ideas in the first century.

First Peter offers a number of points that might be meaningful to Christians who are experiencing suffering, but then also provides practical advice that might minimize their distress: (1) the church is to be an alternative community, offering believers the honor and respect they no longer find in the world; and (2) believers are urged to live in ways that will give their opponents less reason to malign them. First Peter is also noteworthy for the extent to which it identifies Gentile believers as the new Israel: this is often viewed as an expression of Christian supersessionism, but the emphasis in 1 Peter is on privileges extended to Gentiles rather than on the cancellation of those privileges for Jews. First Peter is also sometimes thought to employ baptismal imagery, in that many passages seem to be addressed to new Christians, with interest in the promise and possibility of spiritual growth. Finally, 1 Peter calls for submission to earthly authorities in a way that is somewhat in tension with perspectives expressed elsewhere in the Bible. The view taken in 1 Peter is usually thought to have been prompted by a concern for Christianity to establish itself as a movement that is not intrinsically subversive.

Study Questions

• Summarize what is known about Peter, the disciple of Jesus. How is he presented in the New Testament and what do we know of him from other sources?
• Explain what is meant by the claim that 1 Peter is exemplary of “mainstream Christianity.”
• How does 1 Peter address the problem of suffering? List six points that the letter makes regarding the experience of suffering and list two practical suggestions the letter offers believers to make their lives more bearable.
• What is supersessionism? Evaluate the extent to which the teaching of 1 Peter might be read in support of this doctrine.
• Discuss the reference in 1 Peter to women as “the weaker vessel.” How has this identification been interpreted?
• Describe what 1 Peter says about submission to earthly authorities and indicate how interpreters have sought to make sense of this within the context of biblical writings as a whole.

Household Codes

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Chapter 27: 2 Peter

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 2 Peter, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, 2 Peter is widely considered to be a pseudepigraphical testament, using the device of “a letter from the apostle Peter” as a literary fiction for addressing false teaching in the late first or early second century. The letter also appears to have been heavily influenced by the New Testament letter of Jude.

The letter seeks to refute skepticism with regard to Christ’s parousia and God’s judgment, which, though it seems delayed, will come. Thus, there will be accountability for all, including the false teachers, who seem to be presenting ideas similar to what is associated with Gnosticism and/or Epicureanism. The letter also encourages its readers to grow in godliness by recognizing that they too will face God’s judgment and by remembering what God has done for them and intends for them.

Study Questions

• What is a testament, and why is 2 Peter often ascribed to this genre of literature? In what way is this book not typical of the testament genre, and how might that factor have influenced its interpretation and reception in the church?
• What do scholars usually assume to be the relationship between 2 Peter and Jude?
• Cite two allegations 2 Peter makes against false teachers that go beyond what was said of troublemakers in the letter of Jude. What two groups have scholars suggested might fit the bill for identification with the teachers condemned in 2 Peter?
• What three points does 2 Peter make in response to those who scoff at the notion of Christ’s parousia?
• How does 2 Peter regard “knowledge” as significant for growth in godliness? Cite two areas of knowledge that are held to be particularly significant.

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Chapter 28: The Johannine Letters: 1-3 John

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers brief overviews of all three Johannine letters, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the Johannine Letters are thought by modern scholars to derive from a group of congregations associated with the same community that produced the Gospel of John. A conflict has broken out within that community and some people have broken away from the churches led by “the elder” responsible for these letters.

Some of the themes addressed in these letters probably reflect matters of controversy related to the schism. The letters insist on confession of Jesus as one who came in the flesh, that is, as one who was fully human. They insist on the reality of Jesus’ death as necessary for human atonement, and they offer somewhat ambiguous teaching regarding persistence in sin: Christians are described as people who no longer sin, but also as people who must confess their sin and not deny their sinfulness. The letters present “love for one another” as the prime commandment for Christian communities. In contemporary religious circles, they are often studied for what they reveal about power struggles and the dynamics of church conflict.

Study Questions

• List at least six similarities between the Johannine Letters and the Gospel of John. What conclusions do scholars draw from these similarities?
• Rehearse the likely series of events that transpired in the churches with which the Johannine letters are associated. What sort of conflict has occurred, and how has that played out within the community?
• Based on clues within the Johannine letters, what beliefs or values might be attributed to the secessionists who caused trouble within the community?
• Discuss the ambiguous teaching of these letters on the question of persistence in sin. Do the letters claim that Christians continue to sin—or not? How might seemingly contradictory statements be resolved?
• Describe the Johannine ethic of “loving one another.” Cite three ways in which people fulfill this ethic (according to the letters).
• What do the three Johannine letters reveal about church conflict? Why is the conflict behind these letters often thought to go beyond “doctrinal disputes” to involve power struggles and clashes of ego?

Antichrist/Antichrists

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Chapter 29: Jude

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Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Jude, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, Jude has traditionally been regarded as a letter written by Jude, the brother of Jesus (and of James of Jerusalem). Many modern scholars regard it as pseudepigraphical, but, in any case, it is addressed to Christians in an unnamed locale and seeks to address the problem of “false believers” who are wreaking havoc in the community. The letter is filled with polemic against these false believers without offering many clues to what they believed or did or taught: a few hints suggest that they might be hyperspiritual believers who practice a libertine lifestyle.

Jude assures his readers that the troublemakers will suffer God’s condemnation in the judgment. The letter also provides positive affirmation for “the most holy faith,” which is identified as that preserved by the apostles. The most curious aspect of the letter, however, may be its reliance on apocryphal Jewish writings that are not included in either Jewish or Christian scriptures.

Study Questions

• What is known of Jude the brother of Jesus? Summarize the information we have about this individual from the Bible and other sources.
• Discuss the question of whether Jude ought to be viewed as a pseudepigraphical work. Why would scholars doubt its authenticity? What arguments might be made in favor of authenticity?
• Discuss the polemic that the letter of Jude uses against the “false believers” it opposes. Cite examples of how the author reviles these opponents through the use of insults and comparisons with infamous people from the past.
• How does the author of Jude evaluate “tradition” and “innovation” in matters of faith?
• Give two examples of how Jude draws on nonbiblical writings. What problems has this raised for some Christians?

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Chapter 30: Revelation

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Chapter Summary

The chapter begins with an overview of the content of the book of Revelation. Then, it considers the question of genre and of how the book is read in Christian circles before moving on to discussion of historical background for the book and its major themes.

Revelation is a book that combines elements of three genres: letter, prophecy, and apocalypse. The last of these is a foreign genre to most modern readers but was common in the ancient world; familiarity with its key features aids in understanding Revelation the way it would have been read at the time of its composition.

In fact, Revelation has been read in three different ways throughout Christian history: as a historical work that conveyed distinctive messages to people at the time of its writing, as an idealist or symbolic work replete with universal themes, and as a futurist writing that could only be understood at a time when its predictions began to be fulfilled. The latter approach is often pursued at a popular level, but academic scholars prefer idealist and, especially, historical readings.

In terms of historical background, Revelation is thought to have been produced by an otherwise unknown Christian named John (not to be confused with John the apostle) who was in exile on the island of Patmos. It was sent to seven churches in Asia Minor at a time when the Roman government was viewed as an especially hostile force, persecuting and murdering Christians. Scholars debate whether periods during the reign of Nero or Domitian provide the best backdrop for the book’s contents.

Revelation seeks to unveil the truth about God and the world. The Roman Empire, in particular, is exposed as a monstrous phenomenon, responsible for abominable injustice. It stands under the judgment of God, who controls the future and will act soon to rescue faithful believers from the forces of evil. Revelation depicts the ultimate victory of God as something that has already been assured and, indeed, accomplished through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The book also presents God and Jesus Christ as the only ones worthy of worship and, in that vein, it is replete with liturgical material intended to aid the church in its worship life.

Study Questions

• Describe the three genres of literature that contribute to the book of Revelation. List six features of “apocalypses” that would characterize Revelation.
• Describe the three ways in which Revelation is often read within Christianity and provide two examples of how these “ways of reading” play out with regard to specific texts. Which ways of reading are preferred in academic scholarship?
• Reflect on the sufferings of Christians that the book of Revelation may be intended to address: What sort of hardships and tribulations did Christians experience in Asia Minor at this time? How might theories regarding the date of this book’s composition affect your summation on this point?
• What purpose does the book of Revelation state as the reason for its writing? List four ways in which it seeks to fulfill this purpose.
• How is the image of the “whore of Babylon” intended to unveil the truth about Rome? Cite at least four ways in which this image applies to Rome.
• How does the book of Revelation expect to inspire hope in its readers? In what way does its vision of the future claim to provide assurance that goes beyond mere wishful thinking?

Overview: The Book of Revelation

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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