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The Use of Art in the Book

Chapter 1: New Testament Background: The Roman World

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

The New Testament writings need to be understood within the historical context of the world in which they were produced: the world of the Roman Empire.

The ruling power of the Roman empire was centralized under Caesar in the capital city (Rome), but certain Roman rulers in Palestine are particularly important for understanding the story of Jesus and the early Christians: Herod the Great, Herod Antipas, Pontius Pilate, and Herod Agrippa I. Jews and Christians benefitted from a measure of stability under Roman rulers, but they often regarded those rulers as tyrants and experienced life under Roman rule as oppressive.

It would emerge, furthermore, within a pagan Roman context where many people were influenced by philosophical schools (Epicureanism, Stoicism, Cynicism), mystery religions, and such popular notions as animism, augury, and supernaturalism. By the second century of the Christian era, Gnosticism would represent a variety of the Christian faith heavily influenced by Greco-Roman culture in a way that what came to be called “orthodox Christianity” would reject.

Finally, the New Testament world also needs to be understood in light of prevailing social systems and cultural values. The Roman world was characterized by profound economic inequality, and Roman society often functioned via expectations regarding patronage, benefaction, and obligation appropriate to each person’s place on the social scale. Virtually everyone, Jewish or gentile, considered honor and shame to be pivotal social values, such that the attainment of honor and avoidance of shame became closely connected with the purpose or goal of life.

Study Questions

• Indicate the role that each of the following Roman rulers plays in writings of the New Testament: Herod the Great, Herod Antipas, Pontius Pilate, Herod Agrippa I.
• Identify the key differences between the following three philosophical schools: Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Cynicism. List at least one feature of each school that would not be true of the other two schools.
• What were the mystery religions, and why is it difficult for us to know much about them today?
• Define and briefly describe the following spiritual dynamics in the Roman world: animism, augury and divination, supernaturalism.
• Describe key tenets of the religious movement known as gnosticism. Indicate why some knowledge of this movement may be important for understanding the New Testament.
• Explain how the majority of people in New Testament times would have understood their status or role in the world in terms of one of the following two dynamics: the theory of “limited good” or the concept of “patronage and loyalty.”
• Explain the dynamic of honor and shame. How is this social value reflected in the New Testament?

Was Mary Magdalene a Prostitute?

Were Epileptic Seizures Caused by Demons?

Why Did Pilate Have Jesus Crucified?

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 2: New Testament Background: The Jewish World

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

In terms of Jewish history, the immediate background for the New Testament lies in what is called the Second Temple Period—an era that began with the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple at the end of the Babylonian exile (around 515 BCE) and concluded with destruction of that temple by the Romans in 70 CE. The history of the Second Temple Period spans the time between the Old and New Testaments since, with a few exceptions, most books of the Old Testament were written before this period and most books of the New Testament were written around the end of this period (a decade or two before or after 70 CE). The Second Temple Period may be subdivided into four eras (Persian, Hellenistic, Hasmonean, Roman).

Jesus lived as a Jewish man in Palestine and interacted with different groups of people in that area. The two major Jewish parties with which he had contact were the Pharisees and Sadducees. Other Jewish groups in Palestine at this time included the Essenes, Zealots, and Herodians. The population of Palestine also included Samaritans—whose relations with Jews were strained—and gentiles. The latter become especially important in later portions of the New Testament, where the focus shifts from Palestine to the Mediterranean world.

Throughout the Roman Empire, Jews were inevitably influenced by Hellenism, the spread of Greek culture. Although the degree of influence varied, the effects of Hellenism can be seen in the production of the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible) and in the increasing prominence of wisdom theology, dualism, and apocalypticism. The Christian faith reflected in the New Testament would emerge out of this Hellenistic variety of Judaism. Most adherents to Jewish faith held to notions of purity and defilement that set them apart from other peoples of the earth.

Study Questions

• Explain what is meant by the Second Temple Period, and outline briefly the history of the Jewish people during that period. Identify four major eras that mark transitions for the Jewish people during this time frame.
• Compare and contrast the Pharisees and the Sadducees. List at least half a dozen distinctive characteristics of each group.
• Who were the Essenes, Zealots, and Herodians, and what is the relevance of each of these groups for the New Testament?
• Who were the Samaritans, and why was there so much hostility between Jews and Samaritans at the time of Jesus?
• List five ways in which Jewish religion was affected by Hellenism during the Second Temple Period.
• Explain how the majority of people in New Testament times would have understood their status or role in the world in terms of one of the following two dynamics: the theory of “limited good” or the concept of “patronage and loyalty.”
• Explain how most of Jesus’s Jewish contemporaries in Palestine would have tried to live in terms of concern for purity and defilement.

Modern Jews and the Death of Jesus

Were the New Testament Authors Christians?

Who Is the Modern-Day Good Samaritan?

Temple Mount Today with Overlay

(Courtesy of Dr. James C. Martin)

Timeline of New Testament Chronology

Flashcards of Key Terms

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Practice Quiz

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Chapter 3: The New Testament Writings

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

The New Testament consists of twenty-seven books of seven different types: four Gospels, the book of Acts, nine letters of Paul to churches, four letters of Paul to individuals, the letter to the Hebrews, seven letters attributed to people other than Paul, and the book of Revelation.

The books of the New Testament came to be regarded as Scripture by Christians through a process that included attention to whether the writings were representative of apostolic tradition. A connection to the earliest followers of Jesus or to Paul could be established more reliably in some cases than in others and consideration of which writings belonged to the New Testament canon continued for centuries.

The academic field of New Testament study encompasses a wide variety of methods and approaches. Text criticism is devoted to reconstructing the original manuscripts of the New Testament books. Archaeology uncovers physical evidence and ancient documents that shed light on the New Testament world. Sociological criticism analyzes how various social phenomena are addressed in the New Testament, and cultural anthropology seeks to understand the New Testament period through comparison with other cultures. Historical criticism uses the New Testament writings as a resource for understanding the emergence of Christianity within world history.

Source criticism is concerned with identifying and possibly reconstructing materials that the biblical writers drew upon when composing their books. Form criticism classifies materials according to genre and purpose, while redaction criticism analyzes how the authors arranged and edited their material. Narrative criticism draws on modern literary theory to determine particular effects that biblical stories are expected to have on their readers. Rhetorical criticism focuses on strategies employed by the writers to establish the points they wish to make. Reader-response criticism explains how and why texts come to mean different things to different people. Different types of ideological criticism advocate for receiving texts from particular perspectives. Deconstruction draws upon postmodern philosophy to suggest that interpretations always privilege certain possibilities at the expense of others.

Biblical scholars sometimes distinguish between exegesis and hermeneutics: the former term refers to the actual explication of texts through the use of various methods and approaches; the latter term refers to philosophical reflection on the process of interpretation, including consideration of the manner in which any given interpretation is to be deemed authoritative.

Study Questions

• Explain why the thirteen letters attributed to Paul appear in the New Testament in the order in which they are currently found.
• Define what is meant by “the apostolic tradition” and discuss the extent to which the New Testament writings are exemplary of this.
• Identify two developments that made the question of canon a pressing one for Christians and indicate how the church sought to address that question.
• List the seven New Testament books that had more difficulty attaining status as Scripture than the others.
• Compare and contrast the basic goals of the following pairs of disciplines:
  sociological criticism and cultural anthropology
  source criticism and form criticism
  redaction criticism and rhetorical criticism
  narrative criticism and reader-response criticism
• Explain the difference between exegesis and hermeneutics, and give an example of how the same exegetical approach might be used differently by interpreters with different hermeneutical stances.

From Jesus to Us

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 4: Jesus

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

The New Testament portrays Jesus as both a theologically significant person who lived at a particular place and time, and also as an eternal figure who reigns from heaven and lives in the hearts of believers. The Gospel narratives focus on the first of these figures, describing the life and career of Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus conducts an itinerant ministry to rural Jewish peasants, proclaiming the imminence of God’s rule. He tells parables, performs prophetic acts, and works remarkable miracles, especially healings and exorcisms. He comes to be identified as the Son of Man, Messiah, and Son of God but enters into conflict with the religious leaders of Israel. Eventually, he is crucified by order of the Roman government and, then, raised from the dead.

Academic study of the New Testament often focuses on discerning the particular ways in which Jesus is portrayed by different authors; this enables each New Testament book to be understood on its own terms, apart from what other New Testament writers might have believed or known about Jesus. The field of historical Jesus studies, by contrast, uses the New Testament writings as sources for determining what can be verified as “historical facts” about Jesus apart from the interests of theology or commitments of religious faith.

Compared to the Gospels, New Testament epistles and other writings display less interest in Jesus as a man who once lived in Galilee and more interest in the exalted figure of Jesus who remains the primary object of Christian faith.

Study Questions

• Explain why it is significant to distinguish between “the earthly Jesus” and “the exalted Jesus” and give an example of one way in which this distinction is made within the New Testament itself.
• List three facets of Jesus’s public ministry and indicate which of these would distinguish his ministry from that of John the Baptist.
• What range of meanings might be attached to the New Testament phrase “kingdom of God”? What did Jesus mean when he employed this phrase in his preaching and teaching?
• How does the New Testament portray the conflict between Jesus and the religious leaders of Israel: Why do they take offense at him? Why does he find them offensive?
• Give two examples of how a single New Testament author’s portrayal of Jesus differs from the portrait of Jesus obtained from the New Testament as a whole.
• Cite two examples of New Testament claims regarding Jesus that historians would be unlikely to regard as “verifiable historical facts.” In each case, indicate what principles of historical science would guide historians who render such judgments.
• Give two examples of instances in which an image of the exalted Jesus is more prominent in the writings of a particular New Testament author than in the New Testament as a whole.

Early Images of Jesus

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 5: The Gospels

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

The New Testament contains four Gospels that are not exactly like any other books known to us. In terms of genre, they are probably most similar to ancient biographies, but they contain various types of literature within their pages and also evince the influence of Jewish narratives found in the Old Testament. Furthermore, they differ from modern biographies in notable ways: they employ a fictive (“fictionlike”) style of narrative and they are overtly evangelistic.

The Gospels contain more than forty parables, which are stories or sayings of Jesus that have an illustrative or symbolic meaning to them. They also contain numerous accounts of Jesus working miracles—acts of extraordinary power that astonish onlookers. They contain “pronouncement stories,” which function as vehicles for preserving sayings of Jesus within memorable contexts, and they sometimes also report isolated sayings of Jesus that scholars seek to classify according to content or type. Finally, all four Gospels conclude with extended narratives of Jesus’s crucifixion and resurrection.

Much scholarly attention has focused on “the Synoptic Puzzle,” the question of how the first three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) might be related to each other. The dominant theory suggests that the Gospel of Mark and another, now lost, work called the Q source were written first; Matthew used both Mark and Q as sources when composing his Gospel, in addition to some other material (called “M”); likewise, Luke used both Mark and Q when composing his Gospel, in addition to some other material (called “L”). Alternative theories dispense with Q altogether: one suggestion contends that Matthew wrote his Gospel first, that Luke used Matthew’s Gospel as a source, and that Mark produced his work last as a condensation of the other two; another holds that Mark’s Gospel came first, Matthew modified Mark, and Luke drew upon both Mark and Matthew.

Study Questions

• Describe how each of the four Gospels presents a distinctive portrait of Jesus. For each Gospel, describe the image of Jesus that is presented more prominently and clearly in that one book than in any of the other three.
• How did ancient biographies differ from modern ones? List five features of the Gospels that would have been typical for biographies at the time but would not be typical of biographies today.
• Indicate at least three different ways that parables function within the Gospels.
• How might a typical response to miracle stories in our modern world differ from a typical response to such stories in the world that produced the Gospels?
• What is a “pronouncement story” and how do such stories function in the New Testament Gospels?
• How does the story of Jesus’s passion and resurrection serve as a distinctive theological climax for each of the four Gospels in which it is related?
• Diagram two solutions to “the Synoptic Puzzle” and indicate why this discussion is important for Gospel studies.
• What is the Q source, and what do scholars think it reveals about the interests or priorities of early Christianity?

Overview: The Gospels

Later Images of Jesus

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 6: Matthew

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Matthew’s Gospel, followed by discussion of historical background, distinctive features, and major themes.

In terms of historical background, most scholars think that the author of Matthew’s Gospel was a Jewish Christian who used both the Gospel of Mark and the now-lost Q document as sources for his work. The book appears to have been intended for a community of mostly Jewish Christians in an urban setting some time after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple (70 CE).

Matthew’s Gospel contains a number of stories not found anywhere else, including ones in which Peter figures prominently and ones in which “the church” is explicitly mentioned. Scholars also compare Matthew to the Gospel of Mark and note ways in which Matthew appears to have edited or altered what was written in his source material; in general, there is enhancement of the divine power of Jesus, the leadership potential of his disciples, and the failings of Israel’s religious leaders.

The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes the presence of God, which is mediated first through Jesus and then through the church, which now manifests the presence of God in the world. Jesus comes as the Son of God and as the authoritative teacher who is able to instruct disciples concerning behavior that will accord with God’s will. Jesus is able to interpret Scripture authoritatively, and he continues to do so through the church, which binds and looses laws on his authority. Discipleship in Matthew is portrayed somewhat ambiguously: followers of Jesus worship in spite of doubt and understand God’s word in spite of their “little faith.” Matthew’s Gospel also exhibits a pronounced hostility toward the religious leaders of Israel, who in this book seem to function as literary personifications of evil.

Study Questions

• Indicate why the Gospel of Matthew is traditionally associated with one of Jesus’s twelve disciples and evaluate that tradition in terms of modern scholarship.
• List two features of Matthew’s Gospel that are noticeable in the material that is unique to Matthew (that is, in stories not found in any of the other Gospels).
• Explain why scholars compare the Gospel of Matthew to the Gospel of Mark in order to determine what seem to be specific priorities for the author of Matthew. Give three examples of instances in which differences between those two Gospels reveal something significant about Matthew’s particular interests.
• Explain how Matthew’s Gospel seeks to answer the question “Where is God?” State three propositions Matthew advances in response to this question and provide an example of how each of those propositions is developed within the Gospel.
• What is the Sermon on the Mount, and how does it function to support Matthew’s notion of discipleship? How might Matthew respond to theological claims that the Sermon’s ethic is unrealistic?
• What does the phrase “binding and loosing” mean, and what principles does Matthew’s Gospel offer the church for its exercise of this function?
• Discuss Matthew’s portrayal of Jesus’s disciples as “people of little faith”: how does this accord with his perspective on such matters as worship, doubt, and understanding?
• Indicate at least three ways in which hostility to the religious leaders of Israel is more pronounced in Matthew’s Gospel than in the other New Testament Gospels. What might account for this feature of Matthew’s Gospel?

Binding and Loosing

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Chapter 7: Mark

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Mark’s Gospel, followed by discussion of historical background, distinctive features, and major themes.

In terms of historical background, most scholars believe that Mark was the first Gospel written and that it was produced shortly before or after 70 CE by a Christian who wrote for a community of largely gentile believers. Church tradition has identified the author with John Mark, a companion of Peter in Rome, but this identification is disputed and cannot be confirmed.

Only a small amount of the material in Mark’s Gospel is unparalleled—most of the stories told here are also found in Matthew and/or Luke. Still, Mark’s Gospel is noted for its sense of urgency, its colloquial style, its use of intercalation, and its abrupt ending (which led Christians in earlier times to compose what they thought were more suitable endings for the book).

Mark’s Gospel is usually thought to emphasize the humanity of Jesus in a more evident way than the other Gospels. The crucifixion of Jesus is particularly central to the plot of Mark’s story and to the theology of the Gospel’s author. Mark’s Gospel also displays a somewhat curious “secrecy” theme, by which the identity of Jesus is intentionally shrouded in mystery. As for the message of Jesus, Mark’s Gospel emphasizes above all Jesus’s proclamation of the kingdom of God as both a present, in-breaking reality and a future, imminent hope. Finally, Mark’s Gospel portrays Jesus’s disciples as cowards and fools who repeatedly disappoint him and ultimately fail him.

Study Questions

• Who was John Mark, and why has church tradition associated the Gospel of Mark with him—and with Peter? What points do scholars offer for and against acceptance of those associations?
• List three features of Mark’s Gospel that make it distinctive in terms of literary style.
• What is distinctive about the ending of Mark’s Gospel. and what two theories do scholars propose to explain why the Gospel ends as it does?
• Compare Mark’s emphasis on the death of Jesus to the significance accorded Jesus’s death in the letters of Paul and in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. How might Mark be said to occupy an “intermediate position” between Paul and the other Gospel writers?
• What is the “messianic secret” theme? How have scholars accounted for this motif in the past and what explanations for the theme would remain in favor today?
• Cite two implications of Mark’s claim that the kingdom of God is a present reality as well as a future one.
• Summarize Mark’s treatment of the disciples. What explanations have scholars offered for why the disciples are portrayed in this way?

Exorcism in Mark

Ransom and Atonement in Mark

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 8: Luke

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Luke’s Gospel, followed by discussion of historical background, distinctive features, and major themes.

In terms of historical background, Luke’s Gospel is usually thought to have been written for a general audience of diverse Christian readers a decade or two after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem (70 CE). The author also wrote the book of Acts and may have been a companion of Paul; he is usually thought to have used the Gospel of Mark and the Q document as sources and to have supplemented these through personal research.

The Gospel of Luke contains a great deal of material not found anywhere else in the New Testament, including material in which attention is paid to women, Samaritans, riches and poverty, and the city of Jerusalem. Luke appears to have edited his sources in ways that were intended to improve the linguistic or literary style and to enhance the portraits of Jesus, his disciples, and his family members. Luke also arranged his Gospel structurally, so that it begins with a dramatic and poignant overture (regarding the births of John the Baptist and Jesus) and also features a long central section presenting a journey to Jerusalem as the occasion for much of Jesus’s teaching and ministry.

Worship and prayer receive special attention in Luke’s Gospel. Likewise, an emphasis on food motifs may be suggestive of church contexts in which those stories would be read. Luke shows special concern for outcasts and disadvantaged people and describes the role of Jesus in terms that would be accessible to readers familiar with a wide variety of Jewish and pagan models. Finally, Luke’s Gospel emphasizes the present availability of salvation, claiming the gospel of God liberates people from things that prevent them from experiencing life as God intends.

Study Questions

• Identify the basis for the tradition that Luke’s Gospel was written by “Luke the physician, a companion of Paul” and indicate how scholars would evaluate that tradition today.
• List at least half a dozen stories that are found nowhere in the New Testament except Luke’s Gospel. What do these stories indicate about Luke’s particular interests and concerns?
• Discuss (a) the literary effect of the “infancy narrative” of Luke’s Gospel and (b) the literary effect of the “travel narrative” (that is, the journey to Jerusalem) in Luke’s Gospel. In each case, indicate how Luke has organized his material in a distinctive way and what the purpose of such a scheme might be.
• Describe what is meant by “the food motif” in Luke’s Gospel. What might account for such a motif?
• Describe (a) the attention given to women in Luke’s Gospel and (b) the attention given to the poor in Luke’s Gospel. What might account for the prominence given to such people in this particular book?
• List at least six different images from Jewish or Greco-Roman history that Luke draws upon as “models” for understanding the figure of Jesus. Why does Luke use such a panoply of diverse images?
• Discuss the concept of salvation evident in the Gospel of Luke and indicate how this understanding of salvation might have influenced Luke’s narrative of Jesus’s crucifixion.

Salvation Here and Now in Luke

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 9: John

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of John’s Gospel, followed by discussion of historical background, distinctive features, and major themes.

In terms of historical background, John’s Gospel is often thought to have been written in stages, with the earliest version produced by a “beloved disciple” of Jesus. The version we now possess, however, is thought to have been produced by later editors some time near the end of the first century. There is indecisive discussion among scholars concerning what sources the author or editors of John’s Gospel may have used, including the question of whether they were aware of the other New Testament Gospels.

Most of the material in John’s Gospel is unique, relaying stories about Jesus and words attributed to him that are not reported anywhere else. In general, John describes Jesus’s ministry as extending over a longer period of time and as having more of a concentration in and around Jerusalem than would be surmised from the other Gospels. Most notably, Jesus teaches in a very different style than he does in the other Gospels (philosophical discourses rather than parables and aphorisms) and the content of his teaching focuses much more heavily on his own role and identity.

John’s Gospel presents Jesus as the true revelation of God, the one whose words, deeds, and very person make God known. Without denying the humanity of Jesus, this Gospel emphasizes the divine identity of Christ as one who can actually be called God. The crucifixion of Jesus is presented as an exaltation by means of which God’s love is supremely revealed. Salvation is construed as an experience of abundant life that is eternally valid and meaningful—such life transcends death but can be experienced already in the present. Believers experience this life as a relationship of love in which they are mystically joined with Christ and receive the Holy Spirit, who is here called “the Paraclete.” Opposition to Christ and those who follow him comes from the world in general and from the Jews in particular, and such hostility necessitates the communal love that believers should have for one another.

Study Questions

• Who might the “beloved disciple” be? Explain why some scholars identify this figure with the apostle John and why other scholars think that identification is unlikely.
• Summarize in broad terms the process through which John’s Gospel might have been composed, citing evidence from the text that suggests it has undergone some type of editorial revision.
• List at least five stories from John’s Gospel that are not found in any other New Testament book and five traditions about Jesus common to the other Gospels that are not found in John. What do these comparisons tell us about John’s distinctive priorities?
• Describe three ways in which John presents Jesus as the true revelation of God.
• Explain how and why John presents Jesus’s death as a glorification and indicate how that presentation might correlate with his understanding of salvation as abundant life.
• Contrast the Gospel of John’s vision of life within the believing community with its vision of what believers will experience outside that community.

Signs in John

Flashcards of Key Terms

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Chapter 10: Acts

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers an overview of the contents of the book of Acts, followed by discussion of that book’s historical background, genre, and major themes.

In terms of historical background, the book of Acts was written by the author of Luke’s Gospel and may be read as a continuation or second volume to that work. Most scholars date the work to the decade of the 80s, and many respect its apparent claim to be written by someone who accompanied the apostle Paul on some of his travels.

In terms of genre, the book of Acts fits into the basic category of “general history” and may be compared to other ancient historical works. It does not, however, accord with modern standards for historical reporting, and scholars sometimes question the reliability of Acts as a reference work for understanding early Christianity.

The theology of Acts focuses, first, on God as having sovereign control over all of history. God sometimes guides people by revealing what has been predestined. God has also proven faithful in keeping promises; thus, the transfer of divine blessings from Israel to gentiles must be understood as a consequence of Israel’s rebelliousness and not of God’s unfaithfulness. The book of Acts does emphasize that a remnant of Israel continues to be faithful, and the book presents Jerusalem as the center of the Christian movement. The book of Acts also presents Jesus as still present within the church, and it links reception of present and future salvation to him. Much of Acts is taken up with an enthusiastic account of the church at work in the world, a mission that is marked by charismatic manifestations of the Holy Spirit, miracles, numerical growth, and victorious, triumphant living.

Study Questions

• Why did the author of Luke’s Gospel write a second volume? Give five reasons that have been suggested for why Luke wrote the book of Acts.
• What problems attend scholars who want to use Acts as a resource for understanding early Christianity? Give an example of one way in which Acts seems to prove reliable and another example of a way in which the reliability of Acts has been questioned.
• What implications does the author of Acts draw from his belief that historical events have all been predetermined? How does this belief affect his theological understanding of God, of Scripture, and of what faithful people can or should expect of God?
• How does the book of Acts deal with the theological problem posed by Israel’s rejection of Jesus and the concomitant acceptance of Christ by gentiles?
• What is meant by “Lukan generosity”? Give three examples of how this theme can be seen in the book of Acts.
• List four ways in which the book of Acts depicts Jesus as still present on earth after his ascension into heaven. How do these modes of Christ’s presence relate to Luke’s notion of salvation?
• What does the Holy Spirit do in the book of Acts? Give three examples.
• List three ways in which followers of Jesus are often depicted as being “like their master” in the book of Acts? What theological problem has this depiction of Christ-like disciples posed for some Christians and how is that problem sometimes resolved?

Overview: The Book of Acts

Cosmology in the New Testament World

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Chapter 11: New Testament Letters

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

The New Testament contains twenty-one letters that have been arranged in a recognizable pattern. Scholars and church leaders also sometimes employ various labels for discussing particular groups or types of letters (Pastoral Letters, Captivity Epistles, Catholic Epistles, etc.).

In the ancient world, letters were typically written on papyrus. Many authors would employ an amanuensis or scribe for assistance in letter writing, and the extent of that person’s contribution to the process could vary. Most letters in the ancient world exhibit a clear format consisting of four parts: salutation, thanksgiving, main body, and closing.

Many scholars believe that some of the letters in the New Testament are pseudepigraphical, that is, ascribed to an author who did not literally write that letter (indeed, who may even have been dead). A spectrum of possibilities may be discerned, with several intermediate “levels of authenticity” in between literal authorship and outright forgery. Scholars disagree on the level of authenticity that ought to be accorded many of the New Testament letters.

Study Questions

• List the thirteen New Testament letters that are attributed to Paul, then indicate whether each of these letters would be placed in any of the following categories: (1) undisputed letters of Paul; (2) deutero-Pauline letters; (3) Pastoral Letters; (4) Captivity Epistles; (5) Catholic Epistles. Which letters fit into more than one category?
• What is an amanuensis, and what role might such a person have played in the composition of New Testament letters? Why does such a role become significant in discussions of pseudepigraphy?
• List the four main components of an ancient letter and provide a one-sentence description for each component.
• List seven levels of authenticity that might be applied when questions of authorship are raised for New Testament letters and indicate what is meant by each of these.
• What factors might influence a scholar in deciding that a letter is or is not pseudepigraphical? Cite three factors that might incline a scholar to favor authenticity and three that might incline a scholar to favor pseudepigraphy.

Letter Writing in the New Testament World

Flashcards of Key Terms

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Chapter 12: Paul

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the life of Paul, a discussion of chronology for Paul and his letters, and a summary of Paul’s key theological tenets.

Paul’s biography may be reconstructed from comments made in his own letters, supplemented by information found in the book of Acts. Paul was raised in Judaism as a devout Pharisee, and he would always understand himself in those terms. His life was transformed, however, by what he refers to as an appearance of the risen Christ to him; he changed from a persecutor of the church to become its most successful missionary. After an interim of some years, he took the gospel of Christ to Gentile believers throughout the Roman empire, founding the churches to which he would later write letters. He suffered numerous hardships and persecutions and was eventually arrested and killed by order of the Roman emperor.

Scholars have worked out various chronologies for Paul’s life but generally agree on a sequence of events that can be dated within a span of a few years time. A similar chronology may also be developed for Paul’s letters, but questions arise concerning the best placement for Galatians, Philippians, and Philemon, as well as for all of the letters suspected of being pseudepigraphical.

In terms of theology, Paul understands the “gospel of Jesus Christ” to be a dynamic force that brings salvation to people. At the heart of this gospel is Paul’s understanding of Christ’s death and resurrection, through which people have been justified or made right with God. Paul believes that Jesus is not only the messiah of Israel, but also the Lord of all people; in fact, Jesus Christ may be regarded as “the true image of God.” Paul’s theology is also imbued with a strong sense of piety (e.g., emotional or religious devotion) and with an eminently practical concern for how faith affects the way that individuals and communities live.

Study Questions

• List four sources for studying Paul’s life and thought. Which of these would function as the primary source and what cautions would attend use of the other three sources?
• Discuss the question of whether Paul’s transformation from persecutor to missionary ought to be called a “conversion.” In what sense might that term be legitimate and in what sense might it be misleading?
• Cite three instances in which the book of Acts contains biographical information about Paul for which there is little or no confirmation in Paul’s own letters. Indicate, for each instance, the degree to which scholars would view that information as complimentary to the portrait of Paul obtained from his own letters.
• Describe four aspects of Paul’s mission strategy that can be obtained from comments in his letters.
• What problems do scholars encounter in trying to construct a chronology for Paul’s life and letters? What one piece of information have they found to be especially helpful?
• Why does Paul pay more attention to the last week of Jesus’s life than to the previous years of Jesus’ life and ministry on earth? How do the events of that last week impact his theological understanding of the gospel?
• How does Paul determine what sort of behavior is appropriate for Christians? Indicate at least three principles, beliefs, or expectations that inform Paul’s understanding of ethics.

Flashcards of Key Terms

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Chapter 13: Romans

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Romans, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, Romans is thought to have been written by Paul from Corinth near the end of his missionary career, just before he traveled to Jerusalem, where he would be arrested. The letter is addressed to a church Paul did not found, and a variety of explanations have been advanced for why Paul would have written such a letter. A central question concerns whether Paul intended the letter to deal with problems in the Roman congregation or whether he was simply writing to introduce himself to the church and summarize his theology with reference to generic concerns.

In this letter, Paul argues that God’s action in Jesus Christ reveals that God is righteous. It also imparts God’s righteousness to human beings in a way that allows them to be justified by faith (put into a right relationship with God in spite of their sin) and also sanctified by God in a way that brings about what Paul calls “the obedience of faith.” Paul stresses that God’s salvation is now universally available to all people (Jews and Gentiles) through faith, and he maintains that this is because of what God accomplished through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Paul considers the question of what will become of Jews who do not believe in Jesus, concluding ambiguously that “all Israel will be saved” but that “not all Israelites truly belong to Israel.” Paul also urges believers to obey governing authorities as instituted by God, and he develops an ethical principle that calls for those who understand the full implications of the gospel to make accommodation for the “weak in faith” who follow rules and regulations that are no longer necessary.

Study Questions

• Describe circumstances in both Paul’s life and in the Roman church at the time when Paul’s letter to the Romans was written. List three reasons why Paul might have written this letter at that particular time in his life to that particular congregation.
• What does Paul mean by the phrase “the righteousness of God”? Give three different senses in which that phrase might be applied in Pauline theology.
• What ambiguity do scholars perceive in trying to understand the Greek phrase in Romans that many English Bibles translate as “justification by faith”? How do the possible meanings for this phrase fit in with Paul’s overarching concept of what justification means?
• What do theologians mean by “imputed righteousness” and “effective righteousness” and how do those concepts relate to the notion of the “obedience of faith” expressed in Paul’s letter to the Romans?
• How does Paul relate the concepts of reconciliation, justification, and salvation to acts of Jesus Christ? In the letter to the Romans, what tenses does he use for referring to each of these three phenomena?
• What does Paul say about the salvation of Israel in his letter to the Romans, and how have his words been understood differently by various interpreters?
• Why have some Bible interpreters found it difficult to square what Paul says in Romans about “governing authorities” with what is said elsewhere in the New Testament? What suggestions do interpreters offer to help resolve this tension?

The New Perspective on Paul

Flashcards of Key Terms

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Chapter 14: 1 Corinthians

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 1 Corinthians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, 1 Corinthians appears to be the second of at least four letters that Paul wrote to Christians in Corinth, the capital city of Achaia. Written from Ephesus to a troubled church sometime between 53 and 57, the letter responds to questions Paul has received from representatives of various groups within the church.

Paul denounces the divisions that exist within this congregation, particularly since the different parties are appealing to various human leaders (including him) as their progenitor. He sees the heart of the problem as lying in the Corinthians’ fascination with worldly wisdom and power, and he declares that the cross of Jesus Christ provides a better model for orienting one’s thinking and practice. He also offers, however, a soaring treatise on the resurrection of Christ, emphasizing that both Christ and his faithful believers are raised with new, incorruptible bodies—the point apparently being that God cares about human bodies, not just souls or minds. Paul corrects the notion the being set free from the law allows people to do as they please; rather, they have been liberated to live in a way that will glorify God, edify the community, and be beneficial to all.

Paul discusses numerous practical matters and offers the Corinthians his advice. They need to provide uniform distribution of food at celebrations of the Lord’s Supper, so as to reflect unity of believers and avoid dishonoring the poor. They should excommunicate believers who live unrepentantly in appalling, sinful relationships. With regard to sexual relations, unmarried celibacy is preferable, but sexual relations within marriage are to be allowed, and divorce is to be avoided if at all possible. With regard to food sacrificed to idols, Paul cautions against participation in pagan social activities, but he allows for private consumption of food that might be considered “idol meat” so long as one’s actions do not have an ill effect on others. Finally, on the question of spiritual gifts, Paul encourages speaking in tongues as a form of private prayer but places some restrictions on its use in public, where prophecy is to be preferred. Above all, the congregation is to view itself as the very body of Christ on earth and to seek the more excellent way of “love.”

Study Questions

• What do we know about the city and region of Corinth at the time Paul’s letters to the Corinthians were written? What can we deduce about Paul’s ministry there from the book of Acts and references in his various letters?
• How does Paul address the problem of factions within the Corinthian church? Describe two images that he offers the church to help them overcome these divisions.
• Describe how Paul’s claim to have preached nothing but “Christ crucified” would be relevant to the Corinthian situation. How is the message of “Christ crucified” expected to counter or correct the Corinthians’ preferred value system?
• Why does Paul want to emphasize that the resurrection of believers will be corporal, involving bodies? What are the implications of belief in bodily resurrection that would be particularly relevant to the Corinthians’ situation?
• Indicate how issues involving social class may underscore problems the Corinthian church was experiencing relative to its observance of the Lord’s Supper. What advice does Paul give to remedy these problems?
• Summarize Paul’s teaching on three aspects related to sexual morality: celibacy, divorce, and marriage. What does Paul say to the Corinthians regarding each of these matters?
• How might Paul’s words regarding food sacrificed to idols be understood as addressing two somewhat different situations? How does Paul’s advice differ for each of these situations?
• Summarize Paul’s advice to the Corinthian church regarding the practice of speaking in tongues. Include reference to private and public practice, to prohibition of tongue-speaking, and to the practice of speaking in tongues when accompanied by “interpretation.”

Flashcards of Key Terms

Practice Quiz

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Chapter 15: 2 Corinthians

Video Introduction

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 2 Corinthians, followed by discussion of historical background and major themes.

In terms of historical background, 2 Corinthians is probably the fourth letter sent by Paul to this troubled congregation; it is his response to news that the congregation desires to be reconciled with him following an unfortunate falling out that prompted him to be harsh with them. Many scholars, however, believe that the work we now possess is actually a compilation of numerous notes and letters—in this case the bulk of 2 Corinthians might be identified with Paul’s fourth letter to the church, while sections of the letter might be identified with other correspondences.

Paul devotes most of the letter to discussing the character and content of his ministry and he does so in a defensive vein, owing to strained relations with the church and to the presence of what he calls super-apostles who have exalted themselves at his expense. Two chapters of 2 Corinthians deal with the topic of fund-raising: Paul lays out principles for generous, proportionate giving as he encourages the Corinthians to support a collection he is taking for Jerusalem. The final chapters of the letter, however, are an uncharacteristically bitter assault on the super-apostles: Paul defends his own apostolic authority, cites the marks of a true apostle, and engages in some ironic “boasting” that leads to his conclusion that human weakness is more commendable than strength.

Study Questions

• Outline the history of correspondence between Paul and the Corinthians, indicating at least four letters that he is thought to have sent and which of these four would correspond to the letters we have in the New Testament. What do we know about the content of the “lost letters”?
• Summarize the “patchwork theory” that suggests 2 Corinthians might be a compilation of various notes and letters Paul sent.
• What was the “collection for Jerusalem” that Paul discusses in 2 Corinthians 8–9 and what principles does he articulate when encouraging the Corinthians to take part in this collection? Cite two ways in which he tries to motivate generosity.
• What four marks of apostleship does Paul lay out in 2 Corinthians and how do these relate to his contest with the so-called super-apostles?
• Of what accomplishments does Paul boast in his defense against the super-apostles? Give three examples of “achievements” that mark him as a laudable apostle. Give another three examples of matters that he contends expose his weaknesses and ultimately count for more than the things that show his strength?

Principles for Giving

Flashcards of Key Terms

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