Chapter 21: Proverbs

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Proverbs, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

Proverbs (in Hebrew, Mishle, or “wise sayings”) is a collection of short, pithy statements that contain essential wisdom about life, the world, and truth. Tradition points to Solomon as the author, but Proverbs contains clues that show how the book as a whole formed as a collection of subcollections over time, perhaps as late as 300 BCE. The book of Proverbs was not intended to be read as one long piece from start to finish, but each proverb was meant to be heard and pondered, one at a time. Similar to other ancient Near Eastern wisdom texts, it was most likely curated for young men training to serve in the courts of the rulers.

The first nine chapters of Proverbs feature famous sayings from King Solomon, shared through an imaginative scenario in which a father instructs his son on how to live wisely. The book opens with a prologue explaining how Proverbs was created “for the knowing of wisdom and instruction, for comprehending words of discernment, to take in prudent instruction” (1:2–3 AT). According to the narrator, acquiring knowledge is the first step to fearing God. This opening section also introduces Woman Wisdom—a mythic, goddess-like figure who, like the “tree of life” (3:18), has the power to give true happiness through divine instruction. By contrast, Woman Stranger may speak sweet, tantalizing words, but her ways lead the son to death and destruction. Proverbs 10:1–22:16 continue with a collection of pithy and poetic maxims about various aspects of human life. In general, they steer the reader away from foolishness toward the wise life.

The remainder of Proverbs credits other authors and collectors besides Solomon. Specifically, Proverbs 22:17–24:34 is attributed to the sages. It conveys more wisdom for living a virtuous and disciplined life. However, it also encourages a troubling form of discipline about striking a child with a rod. Proverbs 25–29 are said to be copied by the men of King Hezekiah (25:1). They pay special attention to proper behavior in the royal court. In contrast, Proverbs 30, “the words of Agur” (v. 1), have no particular focus but stand instead as an assortment of seemingly unrelated poems and statements. Finally, Proverbs 31 highlights the words and actions of King Lemuel’s mother and the “woman of substance:” two exceptional women occupying traditional roles as a mother and a wife.

In terms of theological themes, Proverbs emphasizes God’s work (past and present) in creation, often illustrated through Woman Wisdom. In doing so, Proverbs expresses confidence in humanity’s ability to comprehend the patterns and rhythms of God’s creation. Such revelation comes from human reason, experience, and reflection. Therefore, Proverbs exhorts readers to fear God through a reverence to wisdom. This means opening oneself to correction, instruction, and admonition in the present by listening to the voices and traditions of the past.

Study Questions

• Name at least three of the social contexts from which proverbs emerged. Use examples from the text to support your answer.
• In what ways does Proverbs 1–9 represent the patriarchal culture in which it was composed? In what ways does it defy gender stereotypes of the time?
• According to Proverbs 31, who is the woman of substance? Why is she worthy of admiration and praise?
• What does Proverbs reveal about the world “behind the text”? Consider society, culture, and religion in your answer, using specific examples from the text.
• How does Proverbs define what it means to “fear God”? Give at least three examples.
• According to Proverbs, what is the source of divine disclosure and revelation? How is this a different message from previous Old Testament texts?
• How does the book of Proverbs define the good life? How can humanity obtain the good life?

Chapter 22: Ecclesiastes

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Ecclesiastes, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, tradition credits an aged King Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes because the narrator, Qohelet (“one who instructs” or “one who assembles” in Hebrew), introduces himself as the “son of David, king in Jerusalem” (1:1 AT). However, linguistic clues within the text point to a creation date long after Solomon in either the Persian period or the Hellenistic period. Most likely, Ecclesiastes was authored pseudonymously; it was written by an anonymous person under the name or persona of someone else—in this case, Solomon. The book of Ecclesiastes is part of the collection of Wisdom literature within the Old Testament, specifically the negative or pessimistic strain of wisdom in Israel’s theological tradition. Ecclesiastes, along with Job and parts of Psalms, raise questions and doubts about the trustworthiness of creation, the fairness of the world order, and God’s justice.

Ecclesiastes as a whole loosely centers around a view of life as vanity. According to Qohelet, “all is vanity” (1:2 AT), including the pursuit of success, the cyclical nature of the cosmos, and the preservation of memory. Qohelet recalls his lifelong quest for wisdom and his ultimate discovery that the pursuit of knowledge is like “chasing after the wind” (1:17 AT). Likewise, the pursuit of wisdom merely leads to vexation and pain, as does any attempt to seek lasting achievement or pleasure. Ultimately, all a person can do is “eat and drink and find satisfaction in their own toil” (2:24 NIV). In chapter 3, Qohelet includes a poem that begins “For everything there is a season” (v. 1). The poem consists of a list of binaries, each one beginning with the phrase “a time to,” like “a time to mourn, and a time to dance” (v. 4 AT). Through these verses, Qohelet presents the universe as a system created by God but filled with evil.

In this world, all living creatures suffer the same fate of mortality. Time spent gathering wealth is futile, because the rich are never satisfied. The poor fare no better, because they are doomed to be forgotten by history. Rich or poor, all humans have the ability to be each other’s greatest allies and worst enemies, but no one, in their short mortal life, can influence the future of the universe. Rather, the future is and always will be uncertain. As Qohelet shares from experience, not even the wisest can outrun uncertainty, evil, and death. Therefore, Qohelet stresses again that the best things anyone can do in life are to eat and drink in gladness, form meaningful relationships, and engage in work they enjoy, especially when they are young. As one last bit of guidance, Qohelet ends by imploring readers to “fear God and keep his commandments, for this is everything for all humanity” (12:13 AT).

In terms of theological themes, Ecclesiastes portrays God as the omnipotent Creator. God’s divine will has already ordered the destiny of every living thing and all activities “under the sun” (1:14). Accordingly, humanity faces insurmountable limitations in terms of the span of their lives and what they accomplish throughout their days.

Study Questions

• Why might the author have chosen Solomon as his pseudonym? Consider the world “behind the text” in your answer.
• Compare the positive and negative strains of wisdom in Israel’s theological tradition. Which parts of the Wisdom literature do they include, and how does each strain view God, humanity, and the world?
• Name at least three of the things Qohelet argues are vanity. Do you agree with him? Why or why not?
• How does Ecclesiastes view humanity and the human condition? Consider humanity’s capacity for achievement, relationships, and vocation in your answer.
• How does Qohelet view God and God’s agency in the world? How does his theology align with your own?
• What, according to Ecclesiastes, constitutes the good life? Do you find his conclusions fairly accurate or limited?
• Who has a better chance at the good life: a poor laborer or a king? Use the text to justify your answer.

Chapter 23: Song of Songs

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of the Song of Songs, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, very little is known about the composition of the Song of Songs. There are little to no clues with which to date it. Sometimes, the book is also referred to as the Song of Solomon, because the first verse of the book attributes the work to him. However, there is not enough evidence within the text itself to point to Solomon as the author. Within the Old Testament, the Song is considered part of the Wisdom literature. Specifically, it stands as a short series of erotic poetry about the virtues and dangers of love.

The Song of Songs follows the dialogue between anonymous male and female lovers, along with commentary by the “daughters of Jerusalem.” The couple’s love is characterized with great intensity, sexual desire, and longing. The book both begins and ends with the voice of the woman pining for her lover. For example, in Song 2:8–3:11, the woman describes the man leaping over hills and mountains, and she longs to run away with him. Eventually, after much searching, she finds him. In Song 4:1–5:1, the man’s voice takes over. He lauds the beauty of the woman’s body and the sweetness of her love, drawing on images from creation and society. The text then returns to the woman’s perspective. She goes through a dream-like sequence in which she thinks she hears the voice of her lover at the door, but she opens it to find no one. This is just one of the many times the Song emphasizes the themes of presence and absence. The woman goes on a quest in search of her male lover, only to be assaulted by the very watchmen who are supposed to keep citizens safe. Still determined to reunite with him, the woman appeals to the maidens of Jerusalem, and they agree to help her find him.

The final dialogue begins with the man’s voice, again praising the beauty of the female lover from head to toe. The woman responds that she is the object of his desire, belonging only to her beloved. She calls for him to accompany her to the vineyard to make love. The book concludes with a poem about the woman’s love and desire for the man (8:5–6), a statement about love’s power (8:6–7), and brief speeches by the woman, her brothers, and the women of Jerusalem (8:8–14). Overall, the Song depicts love as a force to be treated with care and caution. Love is as strong as death, overtaking human life, provoking fear, and consistently demanding respect. Despite its dangerous strength, love is more valuable than all the riches of the world.

In terms of theological themes, the Song nowhere makes explicit mention of God. However, the author may make subtle references to God. For example, in Song 2:7, the Hebrew phrase translated “by the gazelles” also resembles the phrase “Lord of hosts.” Furthermore, since many other poems in biblical literature depict Israel’s relationship with God as a marriage, the Song has long been read as an allegory for the intense passion of the love and desire between God and his people. Overall, studied within the context of Israel’s Wisdom literature, the Song supports the conclusion that erotic and amorous relationships are a gift from God to be treasured and revered.

Study Questions

• Why is the description of the woman’s appearance as “sunburned yet beautiful” controversial (1:5 AT)? Consider race, class, and gender in your answer.
• How does the Song of Songs depict the agency and equality of women? How is this unique from gender stereotypes in the ancient Near East?
• Reading allegorically, how might the Song depict the love between God and his people? How does this resonate with depictions of God’s love within the rest of the Wisdom literature?
• How does the Song emphasize the immense value of love between people? Use multiple examples from the text to support your answer.
• How does the Song emphasize the dangers of love between people? Use multiple examples from the text to support your answer.
• In what ways does the Song celebrate human sexuality? How is this unique from the ways religious traditions, in general, treat the topic of sexuality?
• Why might the author have chosen to make the voices of the man and the woman ambiguous? How does this feature shape the way readers today interpret the Song?

Chapter 24: Prophecy and the Prophetic Books

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of prophecy and the prophetic books, including discussions of prophecy in the ancient Near East, the literature and theology of the prophetic books, and the ethics of the prophets.

There are sixteen books in the Old Testament that bear the names of prophets. Twelve of these works were once included in one scroll and are therefore referred to as the Minor Prophets (i.e., Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi). The other four (i.e., Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel) are much longer, each taking up their own scroll, and are therefore referred to as the Major Prophets. All sixteen prophets were active in Israel’s history between 760 and 433 BCE. While there were many other prophets active during this time throughout the ancient Near East (some supposedly “faithful” and others “false”), only these sixteen recordings made it into the Old Testament canon.

The prophets of ancient Israel served as divine messengers between God and the people. They alone had authority from God to connect with God’s consciousness and communicate God’s messages. Although the prophets took creative license in how they delivered God’s messages, they could not alter the messages themselves. Such messages fell into three categories: oracles of judgment (descriptions of sin and announcements of punishment), oracles of salvation (messages of hope and good news), and oracles against other nations. Folks on the receiving end of oracles of judgment most often failed to love God and God alone, engaging instead in idolatry and blasphemy in all spheres of life, especially government. Their failure to love God would often quickly extend to acts of injustice and unrighteousness against their neighbors. Whatever the case, the prophetic books present all oracles in a poetic style, intermingled from time to time with prosaic narratives about the call stories of the prophets themselves.

In terms of theological themes, the prophets paint a picture of God as the sovereign Creator of the cosmos and all living things. This Creator God cares deeply for the welfare of all creation. Therefore, the prophets urged people to fulfill God’s vision for a just world, where all people, from orphans to refugees to the poor, might have equal opportunities for well-being. In order to fulfill this vision, Jerusalem should stand as a beacon of justice for other nations to follow. Thus, the prophets (along with several of Judah’s monarchs) upheld a royal theology. Also known as Zion theology, royal theology is founded on three basic beliefs: (1) God has elected David and his descendants to rule and that he has elected the temple as his dwelling place (known as “double election”); (2) God will protect the Davidic line and the city of Jerusalem; and (3) God will hold the people accountable for sin and will not dwell in a corrupt community.

Study Questions

• Describe the vocation of prophets in the ancient Near East. Be sure to summarize the prophets’ relationships with both God and other human beings.
• What is the basic outline for a prophetic call story? Illustrate your answer with a particular prophet.
• Compare oracles of judgment and oracles of salvation. What general formulas do they follow?
• Describe the two types of sin according to the prophets. How are these types of sin related?
• Name at least three spheres of life where, according to the prophets, sin most often occurs. Use examples from the prophetic books to support your answer.
• What, according to the prophets, does a just world look like? What special role does Jerusalem play in that vision?
• What is royal theology or Zion theology? What basic beliefs underlie it?

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 25: Isaiah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Isaiah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of composition, centuries of interpretation have led many scholars to conclude that the book of Isaiah is not the product of a single author but of a multigenerational group of disciples and scribes spanning several centuries. According to this theory, Isaiah 1–35 is attributed to the work of the original “Isaiah son of Amoz” (also known as “First Isaiah”) in Jerusalem, who prophesied between 738 and 690 BCE. Following a historical interlude of sorts (Isa. 36–39), “Second Isaiah” (responsible for Isa. 40–55) then takes up the narrative of Israel from Babylon during the sixth century. Finally, “Third Isaiah” (responsible for Isa. 56–66) concludes the book from his position in Jerusalem from the end of the sixth through the fifth century. The tumultuous years of Isaiah saw the rise and fall of three major empires in the ancient Near East: Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. Israel’s political involvement with these empires and theological interpretation of major events in their history largely shape the contents of the book.

The first chapter of Isaiah serves as an introduction to the book as a whole, foreshadowing how judgment and destruction will befall Zion but how a new city will emerge from the ashes. Isaiah 2–12 interweaves words of hope for and judgment on Jerusalem. For example, Isaiah 5 contains the “Song of the Vineyard,” in which the prophet takes on the persona of a vineyard planter whose careful and loving tending of his crops is met with disappointment, thereby illustrating how God’s careful and loving tending of his people will produce disappointing results. Nevertheless, in Isaiah 6, God calls Isaiah to be his messenger, to which Isaiah famously responds, “Here am I; send me!” (v. 8). However, as predicted, the people largely fail to listen to Isaiah’s guidance from God. During the Syro-Ephraimite crisis, for instance, King Ahaz of Judah ignores Isaiah’s insistence on trusting in God and instead willingly becomes a vassal king for Assyria. The remainder of First Isaiah contains a variety of materials, including poems confirming God’s wrath against Assyria, oracles concerning other nations, and eschatological literature predicting destruction but, ultimately, peace and protection for Jerusalem.

Isaiah 36–39 relays narrative material similar to that of 2 Kings 18–20 about Sennacherib of Assyria’s invasion of Judah in 701 BCE. Unlike his predecessor, Judah’s King Hezekiah trusts in God, and the city is saved. However, Hezekiah gets cocky and decides to show off his wealth and weaponry to some visiting Babylonian leaders. As a result, Isaiah prophesies that the Babylonians will one day take over Hezekiah’s throne and household. This is where Second Isaiah takes up the narrative, assuming the exile and plunder of Jerusalem under King Nebuchadnezzar. Thus, Isaiah 40–55 are mostly words of comfort and promise to exiled Judahites. Some key themes include a predicted return to Jerusalem, the ministry of a mysterious “servant,” and God’s use of Cyrus of Persia in his plan to restore Israel. At last, Third Isaiah (Isa. 56–66) jumps ahead again, assuming that many of the exiles have returned to Jerusalem. Their homecoming is filled with tensions and divisions among them. The prophet, however, speaks about hope regarding the restoration of Zion, the transformation of creation, the restoration of the temple, and the imminent manifestation of divine salvation.

In terms of theological themes, Isaiah is sometimes referred to as the “fifth Gospel” because of how some Christians have, historically, perceived the work of Christ in the words of Isaiah and interpreted the text in light of Jesus’s life, death, and resurrection. However, it is important to understand that the Old Testament was a true word of God to Israel in its own time. For the ancient Israelites, Isaiah’s words taught them to see God as the ultimate ruler of all nations and all creation. Within God’s universal reign, Isaiah predicts Zion will stand as a shining example of God’s justice and righteousness. Therefore, Isaiah encourages not just ancient kings but all people, then and now, to trust in God for deliverance and practice integrity in the ways in which they live out their faith.

Study Questions

• Define the three types of discourse within the poetic material of Isaiah. Give an example of each from the text.
• What symbolic and theological import do names play in the book of Isaiah? Use at least two examples from the text to support your answer.
• Describe the world “in the text” and the major events underlying First Isaiah. What sorts of political and theological tensions emerge from the text?
• Describe the world in the text and the major events underlying Second Isaiah. What sorts of political and theological tensions emerge from the text?
• Describe the world in the text and the major events underlying Third Isaiah. What sorts of political and theological tensions emerge from the text?
• What are the “Servant Songs” in Isaiah 40–55? Summarize the themes, language, and a few of the ways people have interpreted them throughout history.
• In terms of theological interpretation, how might reading Isaiah with a Christian lens be illuminating? How might it be limiting?

Chapter 26: Jeremiah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Jeremiah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

Jeremiah is a collection of poetic and narrative texts about the Judean prophet Jeremiah son of Hilkiah, who prophesied from 628 to 570 BCE. Throughout his lifetime, Jeremiah witnessed some of the most traumatic events in Judah’s history, including the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple and the Babylonian exile. While prophesying to a nation in crisis, Jeremiah himself suffered many personal trials and perils, such as social isolation, imprisonment, and exile to Egypt. These are the primary events around which the book of Jeremiah revolves (though not in chronological order). In terms of composition, the text was originally dictated by Jeremiah to his scribe and disciple, Baruch. However, multiple ancient versions of Jeremiah have been discovered. This suggests that the book of Jeremiah developed from its original form to its final form(s) over time through scribal redactions and edits.

In terms of content, the first ten chapters introduce Jeremiah the prophet and relay his oracles about Judah’s sinfulness, the people’s need for repentance, and impending disaster on Jerusalem. Chapters 11–20 next feature Jeremiah’s laments against his opponents, himself, and even God, in which he mourns divine judgment and complains about his enemies. Jeremiah also calls out individual rulers and elites and even the house of David as a whole for their infidelity. As a result of the people’s faithlessness, Jeremiah prophesies that God will grant Babylon authority over the earth for seventy years. However, after those years of domination, the Babylonians will face God’s judgment. Jeremiah looks forward to this time with hope, trusting that God will restore the people and make a new, unbreakable covenant with them.

In Jeremiah 34–35, the prophet describes Judah’s demise under Babylonian aggression and offers descriptions of life after Jerusalem’s fall. Again, Jeremiah justifies this anguish as a direct result of the people’s failure to keep the covenant. He emphasizes blame on the priests, teachers, rulers, and other prophets for both failing to guide the people with faithful integrity and leading them down paths of idolatry and negligence of both God and neighbor. Upon hearing this messaging, a group of Judean officials throw Jeremiah in jail to silence him. Eventually, he is forced to relocate to Egypt. The final section of Jeremiah highlights Jeremiah’s oracles concerning foreign nations. Through the prophet, God addresses Israel’s neighbors as their king, condemning them for their campaigns against God’s people. The book at last concludes with one chapter (very similar to that of 2 Kings 24:18–25:30) describing the destruction of Jerusalem, seemingly as a way of legitimizing Jeremiah’s prophetic career.

In terms of theological interpretation, Jeremiah is known for its bold, often unsettling language about God’s judgment against the people. The God of Jeremiah is both intensely enraged and deeply mournful about their faithlessness to the commandments and the covenant. In illustration, Jeremiah uses the metaphor of an adulterous marriage in which Israel repeatedly cheats on her husband, God, with foreign gods. The prophet himself claims to suffer from the same betrayal at the hands of not just other people but God as well. God and Jeremiah therefore appear to share this ambiguous lament from Jeremiah 4:19: “My anguish, my anguish; I’m bent over in pain” (AT). Nevertheless, Jeremiah ultimately expresses trust in God’s dedication to the people, and he offers glimmers of hope for a renewed future in the promised land.

Study Questions

• What does the book of Jeremiah illustrate about the role of scribes in the ancient Near East, especially in regard to prophetic figures like Jeremiah? Why is it necessary to take scribal influence into account when studying the content and composition of Jeremiah and other Old Testament texts?
• Summarize the main events of the Babylonian exile, including the political factors leading up to it and its consequences for the people of Judah. What theological questions and concerns arose from this communal trauma?
• Who does Jeremiah primarily blame for the downfall of Jerusalem? What reasoning does he give?
• Amid the doom, destruction, and judgment featured in Jeremiah, how does the prophet imbed glimmers of hope? Give at least two examples from the text.
• How does Jeremiah depict God? Consider God’s emotions, words, and actions in your answer.
• What trials does Jeremiah face throughout his prophetic vocation? Name at least three.
• What does Jeremiah personally demonstrate about what a relationship with God looks like? What about Jeremiah’s relationship with God may be shocking to his audience, then and now?

Chapter 27: Lamentations

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Lamentations, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, tradition credits Jeremiah as the author of Lamentations, and therefore most canons pair the two books together. The Greek translation of Lamentations opens with a verse attributing the text to him, which seems logical given that both Jeremiah and Lamentations focus on the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. However, the Hebrew manuscript makes no mention of Jeremiah. This fact, along with other stylistic and theological differences between the two books, have led many to conclude that Lamentations was likely composed by an anonymous Judean living around the same time. Regardless, Lamentations is a powerful text that captures one of the most traumatic events in Judah’s history. As such, Jews to this day read Lamentations on the Ninth of Ab, a day of fasting and mourning that commemorates the siege on the temple and Jerusalem in 587 BCE by the Babylonians and again in 70 CE by the Romans. Similarly, Christians may read Lamentations during Holy Week in bereavement over Jesus’s death on the cross.

Lamentations is composed of five poems of lament about the destruction of Jerusalem. A lament is distinct from a prayer for help in that it presumes an unfavorable outcome has already occurred. Laments, therefore, can call a community together during a time of suffering. They may also demand God’s presence and compassion, while at the same time implicating God for the people’s pain, all in an attempt to transfer that pain to God in order to resolve or, at the very least, diffuse it. Every poem of lament in the book adopts the qinah meter—a rhythmic style conveying a sense of mourning, loss, and protest. Some laments also follow an acrostic pattern, each verse beginning with a successive letter in the Hebrew alphabet.

Overall, Lamentations represents a specific genre of ancient Near Eastern literature known as a city lament. Such texts personify a particular city as a woman in mourning. For example, Lamentations 1–2 characterizes Jerusalem as “daughter Zion” who weeps in bitter grief at her ruin. According to daughter Zion, her ruin is a direct result of divine judgment and wrath. Lamentations 3 then switches voices to an unnamed survivor who too is afflicted by God. Although the narrator first perceives God as a predator bent on destruction, she ultimately recalls how the “kindnesses of Yahweh are never ending” (3:22 AT). She then changes her focus from lament to repentance and self-reflection, appealing to God for vindication. However, Lamentations 4 returns to descriptions of the gruesome siege against Jerusalem and the violence, scarcity, and cruelty that plague the people as a result. Finally, the book concludes with a communal lament in which the people plead for God to remember their anguish and “restore” them (5:21).

In terms of theological interpretation, Lamentations agrees with most of the Old Testament that God is the agent who destroyed Jerusalem and sent the people into exile. Such texts frame God’s judgment as righteous on account of the people’s idolatry, blasphemy, and general faithlessness. The only hope for Jerusalem is to turn to God in repentance and plead for restoration, for “certainly God’s compassion isn’t through!” (3:22 CEB).

Study Questions

• Summarize the debate around the authorship of Lamentations. Why do some traditions and scholars credit Jeremiah as the author, while others find this conclusion unlikely?
• Describe the world “in the text” of Lamentations. What sorts of trials were the people wrestling with physically, emotionally, and theologically?
• In what ways does Lamentations represent a classic city lament within ancient Near Eastern tradition? How does Lamentations put a unique theological spin on the features of this genre?
• What purposes do laments serve for those who pray them? Name at least three purposes using examples from Lamentations.
• Overall, what theological explanation does Lamentations give for the destruction of Jerusalem? Where, within this theology, does the book express hope for Jerusalem’s future?

Chapter 28: Ezekiel

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Ezekiel, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, very little is known about the authorship or composition of Ezekiel. The text follows the life of the prophet Ezekiel, a Zadokite priest who served in the temple in Jerusalem and was one of the first sent into exile in Babylon in 597 BCE. Unlike the other prophetic books, Ezekiel primarily exhibits prosaic material organized chronologically. This material contains Ezekiel’s vision reports, prophetic sayings, oracles against foreign nations, and symbolic acts. Throughout the text, Ezekiel is only mentioned twice by name. He is otherwise called “son of man,” meaning “mortal.”

The first seven chapters of the book focus on Ezekiel’s calling and visions while he was among the exiles, living near the Chebar River. With a flare of transcendence and omnipotence, God appears to Ezekiel along with four human-like creatures in “the likeness of the glory of Yahweh” (1:28, NRSV modified). God calls Ezekiel as a “watchman” to the rebellious people of Israel, commissioning him to warn them about threats to their lives. If he fails to deliver God’s messages to them, the impending disaster will fall directly on him instead. Ezekiel therefore goes on to deliver many verbal and visual messages to the people. For example, God commands Ezekiel to make a model city and “set up a siege against her” as a “sign” for the house of Israel (4:1–3 AT). Chapters 8–24 continue the theme of divine judgment, with particular emphasis on Yahweh’s departure from the temple. God goes with the people into exile, seemingly with plans to bring them home. However, because the temple has been defiled by the worshiping of false gods, it must be purged before it is worthy of God’s holy presence. Similarly, Ezekiel also implores the people to address false prophets who would convince them that they live in a time of peace rather than disaster. Ezekiel next moves on to oracles against foreign nations. These actually appear to be composed for domestic audiences as a way of assuring them of God’s supremacy.

The fall of Jerusalem at last occurs in Ezekiel 33. The blame ultimately falls on the “shepherds” (i.e., the leaders) of Israel, who failed to attend to the needs of their “flock,” especially the most vulnerable among them. God, however, will not abandon the people but will instead appoint a new shepherd from the line of David to usher in security, blessing, and fertility. In his most famous vision, Ezekiel illustrates the resurrection of Israel as the resurrection of a valley of dry bones. At this time, Israel’s foreign enemies will be destroyed, and God will return to the temple at last—the seat of God’s cosmic rule and the center of all creation. Ezekiel himself receives instructions not only for rebuilding the temple but also for reestablishing the land and its boundaries.

In terms of theological interpretation, Ezekiel appears to be in agreement with the other Major Prophets that the exile was a direct result of divine judgment. God’s involvement, however, also gives Ezekiel hope that God will be involved in the restoration of Israel. On the whole, the book contains some of the most horrific and disturbing theological texts in the Old Testament. We must therefore read Ezekiel in dialogue with our own ethical and theological compasses and evaluate the text within the sociocultural context in which it was written.

Study Questions

• In what ways does Ezekiel’s priestly identity shape his vocation and theology? Give at least two examples from the text.
• Summarize one of Ezekiel’s visions or prophetic signs. What theological messages might it send to the world “in the text”?
• Who or what does Ezekiel blame for the Babylonian exile? Give at least three distinct answers, and use the text to justify your thinking.
• What theological questions and issues arose in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple? How does the prophet Ezekiel address these issues?
• What messages of hope does the book of Ezekiel convey? Describe at least two, using quotations from the text to support your answer.
• Compare, in general, the instructions for the new temple with those of Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 5:1–9:9) and the tabernacle (Exod. 25:1–31:18). How is Ezekiel’s temple unique?
• The book of Ezekiel contains some of the most horrific and disturbing theological texts in the Old Testament. What are some helpful strategies or lenses for approaching the text today?

Chapter 29: Daniel

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Daniel, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, very little is known about the composition of Daniel. The world “in the text” stretches between the Babylonian exile of the sixth century BCE to the military campaigns of Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid dynasty in the second century BCE. It is therefore likely that Daniel was composed by several scribes over many generations. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that there are several ancient versions of Daniel in both Greek and Hebrew. The Greek versions contain extra material sometimes called the Additions to Daniel. Within Jewish and Christian canons, Daniel is most often situated among the Major Prophets. However, while most prophetic books are primarily dedicated to messages delivered by the prophets, Daniel is organized and centered around the life of the prophet himself.

Daniel was a faithful Jewish exile known for revealing mysteries, educating kings, and receiving apocalyptic visions. He lived under the shadow of conquerors like Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The first six chapters of Daniel are court tales illustrating how Daniel and his companions were forced to negotiate their Jewish identities in the context of imperial domination and violence. For example, in Daniel 2, King Nebuchadnezzar has a dream, and he summons his experts, including Daniel, to interpret it. However, in a twist, he demands they both tell him what he dreamed and explain the dream’s meaning. When the experts protest that no one can fulfill such a request, the king threatens to execute them. Daniel and his friends pray for help, and God reveals the mystery to Daniel. In brief, the king saw a large, awesome statue of gold, silver, bronze, iron, and pottery. A rock struck the statue and destroyed it. Daniel explains the dream as a foreshadowing of another kingdom that will soon rise up and triumph over all. Hearing this, Nebuchadnezzar bows before Daniel, confessing that Daniel’s God must be “God of gods” and “Lord of kings” (2:47). Other famous court tales from Daniel include the stories of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego and Daniel and the lion’s den. These tales, too, end with the king realizing Yahweh’s unparalleled power.

The second half of Daniel is a series of apocalyptic visions. In apocalyptic literature, a human being receives a revelatory experience with the assistance of a heavenly being. The experience is expounded in the form of a story describing an alternative reality transcendent of the present phenomenal order. For example, Daniel 10–11 captures one episode in which Daniel has a vision of a magnificent man and then falls into a trance. In the trance, an angelic mediator explains to him how militaristic events of the past and present directly link to battles of heavenly princes for cosmic power over the whole world. The book ends with the Bible’s first images of individual resurrection—a final demonstration of God’s supremacy over even death itself.

In terms of theological interpretation, Daniel speaks to those suffering oppression and urges them to find courage through faith. While earthly terrors may rage and triumph temporarily, God’s justice will ultimately prevail, for the Israelite God alone reigns over history.

Study Questions

• How does humor function as a literary device in the book of Daniel? Give at least two examples from the text to support your answer.
• Describe the world “in the text” of Daniel. What political events and elements of the sixth and second centuries does Daniel wrestle with especially?
• What are the primary features of a court tale? Use one of the court tales from Daniel to exemplify your answer.
• What are the primary features of apocalyptic literature? Use one of the apocalyptic visions from Daniel to exemplify your answer.
• How does the book portray God vis-à-vis earthly rulers? What theological messages might these portrayals send to readers, then and now?
• In what ways does God grant Daniel the ability to reveal divine mystery? In what ways does God use him to conceal divine mystery?
• What messages of hope does the book of Daniel contain? Who today might benefit from these messages?

Chapter 30: Hosea

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Hosea, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

Hosea is the first in the collection known as the Book of the Twelve or the Minor Prophets. Hosea lived in the Northern Kingdom of Israel and prophesied during the violent military campaigns of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the eighth century BCE, prior to the Northern Kingdom’s fall to Assyria in 722/721 BCE. The bulk of the material within Hosea likely originated during his time but was no doubt edited by scribes many years later.

The book of Hosea may be divided into two sections: chapters 1–3 and chapters 4–14. Chapter 1 begins with a superscription identifying the prophet as a native of the Northern Kingdom, but it also names Judean kings as part of Hosea’s historical context. Doing so places Hosea’s ministry at the same time as the prophet Amos in the north and Isaiah of Jerusalem in the south. The following passage, Hosea 1:2–3:5, raises many ethical and theological challenges for contemporary readers regarding sexuality. In Hosea 1:2, for example, God commands Hosea to “go take for yourself a wife of whoredom and have children of whoredom, because the land whores itself away from the Lord” (AT). The various marital, sexual, and parental images in these chapters are meant to illustrate Israel’s scandalous betrayal of her marital relationship with Yahweh, her husband. While the language in this section is disturbing, its purpose is to cause enough discomfort to prompt Israel to abandon false gods and return to the one true God.

The second main section of the book, Hosea 4–14, is characterized by oracles of judgment, hope, and a call to repentance. Hosea 4:1 sums up the message of judgment: “There is no truthfulness or faithfulness, no knowledge of God in the land” (AT), and all creation is in a state of suffering. Chapter 5 directly condemns religious and political leaders for leading Israel down a path of faithlessness. In chapters 6–7, an unnamed voice urges repentance, explaining how God’s judgments are ultimately designed to guide the people toward healing and reconciliation, but Israel continues to put their hope in empires like Egypt and Assyria. Nevertheless, like a parent, God loves his child Israel unconditionally, refusing to give up on her, no matter her disobedience. The book then briefly returns to words of judgment against Israel before concluding on a note of hope about repentance as the path to healing, renewal, and a fruitful future.

Contemporary readers may struggle with the violent, sexist, and patriarchal language in Hosea, especially those attributed to the characteristics and actions of God. They may also question whether or not it is faithful to criticize such language. The Old Testament, however, demonstrates repeatedly how human protestation of divine speech is not only natural but biblical. Conflict through dialogue is a common part of a journey of faith and an ongoing relationship with God. That said, it is also important to read the text empathetically, recognizing that the author(s) lived in another time and culture much different from our own, with limited intellectual and theological resources at their disposal.

Study Questions

• In what ways does Hosea stand out from other Old Testament prophetic books? In what ways is Hosea similar to them?
• Describe the world “behind the text” of Hosea. How did major political events and relations shape Hosea’s messages?
• Explain the dual meanings behind the names of Hosea’s three children. What is the theological theme at the core of all three?
• What ethical and theological challenges might Hosea 1–3 pose for contemporary readers? How might readers approach such challenges?
• Hosea uses many metaphors to describe the relationship between Israel and God. Describe two such metaphors and the theological messaging behind them.
• Summarize three of the judgments Hosea brings against Israel. What consequences resulted from these sins?
• Ultimately, what message of hope does Hosea share with the people? What does the path to this hope-filled future look like?

Chapter 31: Joel

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Joel, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, little is known about the prophet Joel son of Pethuel. The book of Joel itself reveals very little about his life, and there is no mention of Joel in any other part of the Old Testament. Some guess, based on his positive view of the temple and Jerusalem, that Joel was perhaps associated with the Southern Kingdom of Judah or the province of Yehud, and he may have once served as a priest. The book of Joel’s position as second in the Book of the Twelve suggests that the ancients understood Joel to be a preexilic contemporary of Amos and Hosea, but other textual clues suggest that the book was composed in the postexilic era (i.e., the fifth or fourth centuries BCE).

Like other prophetic works, the book of Joel follows a gradual movement from disaster and judgment to forgiveness and restoration. The first half of the book depicts the shift from judgment to salvation as cosmic in scope, involving the entire natural order. Joel begins by urging readers to teach their children about an unprecedented locust plague. Some interpret this to mean a literal plague of locusts, while others interpret it as a metaphor for foreign invaders. Regardless, Joel clearly points to God’s judgment as the ultimate source of this plague. God’s judgment will culminate in the prophesied “day of the Lord,” when “darkness and gloom” will cover the earth, and all creation will be destroyed by wildfire, drought, and an assaulting army headed by Yahweh himself (2:1–2). Soon after, however, God’s compassion will be stirred up on behalf of the land, reinvigorating the world with light and life. God will even “repay” Judah the years devoured by the plague (2:25).

Joel’s message of judgment to hope continues through further talk of deliverance, the Spirit, and the day of the Lord. He describes how fertility and celebration will spring forth from God’s compassion, driving away shame and foreign invaders in the process. Thus, just as destruction came to both humanity and creation, so too will restoration repay all living things in abundance. God will also “pour out [his] spirit on all flesh,” male and female, resulting in prophecy, dreams, and visions (2:28). Joel explains how signs will appear in the heavens in anticipation of the “great and terrible day of Yahweh” (2:31 AT), when “everyone who calls upon the name of Yahweh will be delivered” (2:32 AT). In the final chapter of Joel, Yahweh gathers the nations and judges them for abusing his people and land. For Judah’s enemies, it will be a day of terror, but Judah herself will find refuge in God.

As with many of the prophetic books, God in Joel is active in the world through creation. What’s more, the fate of creation itself appears to be interconnected with the fate of humanity. All the world is caught up in the impact of human violence and sin. Likewise, creation also responds to God’s saving grace, enjoying restoration along with Judah. This illustrates how God’s election of a particular people living within a chosen city in a chosen land is truly for the sake of all living beings.

Study Questions

• Why might some scholars date Joel to the preexilic era, while others point to the postexilic era? Which line of reasoning do you find most convincing?
• Read metaphorically, what might Joel’s plague represent and signify to readers? How does the meaning of this passage change when read literally?
• According to Joel, through what means does God act in the world? Give at least two examples from the text to support your answer.
• Summarize the day of the Lord as recorded in Joel. What does this day illustrate about the natures of God and humanity?
• According to Joel, in what ways are the fates of humanity and creation interconnected? What theological significance might this hold for contemporary readers?
• What significance did the promise of the Spirit in Joel 2 hold for the book’s early readers? What significance might it hold for readers today?

Chapter 32: Amos

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Amos, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, Amos was a shepherd from the Southern Kingdom of Judah, called briefly by God to deliver messages of warning and judgment to the people and rulers of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. He confronted King Jeroboam II of Israel, who reigned from 786 to 746 BCE. While this time was generally viewed as peaceful and prosperous for the Northern Kingdom, Amos pointed to deep moral and spiritual corruption beneath the surface. Amos’s oracles were likely recorded by some of his disciples (called “sons of the prophets,” 7:14) and brought back to the kingdom of Judah for preservation. From there, the book went through a series of edits before reaching its final form as we have it today.

The superscription of Amos 1:1 introduces the prophet as “one of the shepherds from Tekoa,” a village in Judah (1:1 AT). Once called by God to prophesy, the prophet goes to condemn Israel and her neighbors. He shouts, “From Zion the Lord roars! From Jerusalem he raises his voice! The pastures of the shepherds wither, and the top of Carmel dries up!” (1:2 AT). Amos names several sins of Israel’s neighbors, like the enslavement of people by the Philistines and Tyre’s breaking of their covenant of kinship with Israel. Over the next three chapters, Amos reports God’s judgments against Israel herself. Some of these messages are directed to the nation, while others are directed toward groups of individuals, such as the priests and women of Samaria. This is Amos’s comprehensive way of illustrating how, at every level of society, Israel has failed to love her Lord and her neighbor. For all these sins, God will raise up another nation to attack and oppress Israel.

The next section of Amos, 7:1–9:4, records a series of five visions, interrupted briefly by one narrative. In the first two visions, Amos sees locusts and then a fire devouring the land. He pleads for God to stop the destruction, and God relents. In the third vision, God holds a plumb line (a tool for measuring the straightness of a structure) up to the people, and Amos declares that they will not be spared from judgment. Even the king of Israel will be judged and then killed. Here, the editors of Amos added a short story about the priest Amaziah of Bethel confronting Amos for offending the king and ordering him to leave the land. Amos refuses. His final two visions also signify the coming judgment and destruction of Israel. Amos concludes by celebrating God’s universal reign and very briefly relaying God’s promise to bring about restoration.

Like other biblical prophets, Amos recognizes two primary sins: (1) failure to love God and (2) failure to love one’s neighbor. Despite all God has done to deliver and care for his people, the Israelites engage in idolatry. When they do worship God, Amos accuses them of going through the motions of worship without turning their hearts to God and being transformed into agents of God’s justice. Consequently, the people exploit their neighbors economically, socially, and sexually, committing sins like robbery and incest.

Study Questions

• Amos 1:2 is often regarded as the prophet’s “thesis.” How do his words and imagery set up the messages that follow?
• How, according to Amos, have the Israelites failed to love God? How is this the root of all sin?
• How, according to Amos, have the Israelites failed to love one another? Give at least three examples from the text.
• Summarize two of Amos’s visions. What theological beliefs underlie them?
• Amos is extremely clever in his use of words and literary devices to capture his audience’s attention. Give an example of his creativity, and explain how his use of language might have redirected people toward faithfulness.
• What does Amos have to say about best practices for worship? What might readers today take away from his ideals?
• What messages of salvation does Amos include? Quote at least two from the text.

Chapter 33: Obadiah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Obadiah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, there is debate among scholars as to the dating of Obadiah. Since the book of Obadiah follows that of Amos in the Book of the Twelve, some argue that Obadiah lived and prophesied around the same time as Amos in the eighth century BCE. However, other contextual and linguistic clues suggest that Obadiah may have been a contemporary of Jeremiah and experienced the traumatic destruction of Jerusalem in 587/586 BCE. In either case, Obadiah directs his message to the fictive audience of the nation of Edom, while his actual audience appears to be the people of Judah.

Obadiah is the shortest book in the Old Testament, with only one chapter. It opens with a brief superscription (“The vision of Obadiah”) before diving into the prophet’s message of judgment from “the Lord God concerning Edom” (v. 1). Obadiah condemns the Edomites “for the slaughter and violence done to [their] brother Jacob” (v. 10). The phrase “brother Jacob” assumes that the Judeans are a “cousin” people of the Edomites, descendants of Esau. Edom’s actions against Judah therefore carry the sting of brotherly betrayal and fit within a history of contentious familial relationships. According to Obadiah, Edom violated their covenant of kinship with Judah, razed the city with Babylon, and turned over refugees and survivors to Babylon.

The prophet sums up the coming judgment in verse 15: “As you have done, it shall be done to you.” This sense of equity and proportionality in the Lord’s judgment was a key feature of prophetic theology. The Lord’s judgment never exceeded in scope or severity the crimes of those who were brought to judgment. In the final section of Obadiah (vv. 17–21), the prophet casts a poetic vision of the Lord’s promised future. God will gather the chosen people from the ends of the earth and return them to the promised land, reestablishing God’s universal reign from Zion.

In terms of theological interpretation, Obadiah uses the phrase “the day” in reference to three different days: the day when God punishes Edom for her sins; the day of Jerusalem’s fall and the atrocities immediately following it; and “the day of the Lord,” on which God fulfills his promises to restore, protect, and dwell in Zion. This is the hopeful announcement of salvation with which the book of Obadiah concludes.

Study Questions

• What contextual clues do scholars use to debate the date of Obadiah? Which clues do you find most convincing, and why?
• Identify both the fictive and the actual audiences of Obadiah. What is Obadiah’s main message to each audience?
• Why might Obadiah refer to the Judeans as “brother Jacob” (v. 10)? How might the relationship between Jacob and Esau reflect that of Judah and Edom?
• What reasons does Obadiah give for God’s judgment against Edom? Use quotations from the text to support your answer.
• Summarize Obadiah’s three distinct meanings of “the day.” What do these days illustrate about the nature of God and God’s covenant relationship with the chosen people?
• Compare Obadiah’s vision for “the day of the Lord” with that of another biblical prophet. How do these visions complement or contradict one another?
• Overall, what does God’s justice look like according to Obadiah? What other characteristics does Obadiah reveal about the nature of God?

Chapter 34: Jonah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Jonah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, Jonah son of Amittai is mentioned in both the book of Jonah and 2 Kings 14:25 in the regnal formula that introduces Jeroboam II. If the two prophets are indeed the same, then this locates Jonah as a resident and prophet in the Northern Kingdom of Israel around 786–746 BCE, just a few decades before the nation was conquered by the Assyrians. However, there is no extrabiblical evidence that the events recorded in the book of Jonah took place. The book itself was likely composed after the exile, judging by its late Hebrew linguistics. Unlike most other prophetic books that feature poetry and oracles delivered by a prophet, Jonah is a humorous narrative about the prophet himself, the authorship of which is unknown.

Jonah 1:1 dives right into the narrative with Jonah’s call from God to preach in Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria. This is the same Nineveh that invaded Judah’s territory multiple times, stole resources, and killed countless Judeans. Thus, rather than trust and obey God’s call, Jonah attempts to flee from God in what becomes a long process of descent, both literally and figuratively. In chapter 1, we’re told that Jonah “went down to Joppa” (v. 3); he “went down” into the ship headed away from Nineveh (v. 3); and he “had gone down” to sleep in the ship (v. 5). Ironically, the sailors (presumably foreigners) of the ship are far more god fearing than Jonah. When a dreadful storm overtakes the ship, they interpret it as divine and beg Jonah to cry out to the gods for mercy. What’s more, after learning about Jonah’s guilt, the sailors try to spare him. They do eventually throw Jonah overboard but not before offering a humble and deferential prayer to God.

God commissions a giant fish to rescue Jonah from drowning. Jonah remains in the belly of the beast in despair for three days until his own death draws near. That’s when Jonah at last turns back to God, and the fish spews Jonah onto shore. Yahweh then calls Jonah a second time, and Jonah relents. He goes to Nineveh and delivers what might be the shortest sermon in history: “Forty days more and Nineveh shall be overturned!” (3:4, modified). His message, however, convinces the king to order all to repent. In response, God “changed his mind” about the disaster (3:10). This sends Jonah into a tirade over God’s graciousness toward one of Israel’s greatest enemies. God does not respond in like anger but rather in mercy, appointing a bush to protect Jonah from the oppressive heat as he sits and pouts. The next day, God destroys the bush with a worm, as one last attempt to stir up compassion in Jonah. The book ends with a question from God to Jonah, left unanswered: “You have pity for the plant for which you did not labor. . . . Should I not have pity for Nineveh, that great city in which there are more than 120,000 people?” (4:10–11 AT).

In terms of theological interpretation, the book of Jonah illustrates God as one who reaches out with grace, favor, and compassion to the undeserving. Jonah himself fits into this “undeserving” category, showing how the God of Israel is merciful both toward those who repent and toward those who haven’t yet found their way. This God who is deeply and compassionately involved in the world acts through not just people but also creatures and natural forces. In fact, creation ironically displays greater obedience to God than one of God’s own prophets!

Study Questions

• Describe the world “in the text.” How does an understanding of the political realities of this world help us make sense of the narrative as a whole?
• Describe the world “behind the text.” How might the sociopolitical realities of this world have shaped the narrative of Jonah?
• In what ways is Jonah an “upside down” prophet? Give at least three examples from the text to support your answer.
• How does the narrative of Jonah follow a pattern of descent and ascent? Be sure to consider this pattern both literally and figuratively.
• How does the book of Jonah make use of humor, satire, and irony as literary devices? Give at least two examples from the text to support your answer.
• What does the book of Jonah illustrate about the character of God? How does God act in the world?
• In what ways might the book of Jonah be “truthful” even if there is no extrabiblical evidence to support the events it records? In this light, what value might Jonah hold for readers today?

Chapter 35: Micah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Micah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, Micah prophesied during the reigns of Judean kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah in the late eighth and early seventh centuries BCE. Thus, he was active during the times of Isaiah, Amos, and Hosea and during the rise of the Assyrian Empire. Several historical events shaped Micah’s messages, including the fall of Samaria to Assyria and the exile of the Northern Kingdom (722/721 BCE), the campaigns of the Assyrian king Sargon II against various rebellions (720–710 BCE), and the devastating but failed invasion of Judah by Sargon’s son Sennacherib (701 BCE). “Micah the Moreshethite” lived in one of the villages overrun by Sennacherib (1:1 AT), and he heavily criticized the Judean leaders for their cruel and hypocritical leadership during that time. These criticisms, presented primarily as poetry, were likely composed by Micah himself but later edited by scribes in the sixth century BCE.

Micah begins with poems of judgment, lament, and condemnation. The book opens with a fiery theophany: Yahweh emerges from his dwelling place, furious about the “transgression of Jacob” and the “sins of the house of Israel” (1:5). He accuses both Samaria and Jerusalem of evil, idolatry, coveting and seizing property, and oppressing their neighbors. God reacts with a mixture of rage and sorrow, and he devises a day of disaster for them both. However, in Micah 2:12–13, hope interrupts disaster. God is depicted as a shepherd who frees the people from bondage and gathers them in safety and security. The third chapter returns to the theme of judgment. Micah decrees the brutal desecration of the “rulers of Jacob” (3:2 AT). Though they may cry out, God will ignore their prayers, and even the prophets will be denied the word of the Lord.

Chapters 4 and 5 contain a series of texts about the future, all with different emphases. Micah 4:1–5 depicts Zion as the highest of mountains and Yahweh’s temple as a sort of school for the nations, where people travel in search of teaching and arbitration. The pursuit of divine knowledge will usher in a time of peace in which people will forgo their weapons of war, “beat[ing] their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks” (4:3). The subsequent oracles deal with the ingathering of the exiles to Zion, the Judeans’ exile to Babylon, and Babylon’s victory over the nations. God, however, will raise up a leader to restore peace and security to God’s people. God also promises to cleanse Israel and the nations for their disobedience. In Micah 6, the prophet turns again to judgment by presenting a lawsuit brought by God against the people. Creation itself serves as God’s witness to the people’s corruption vis-à-vis God’s faithfulness. Nevertheless, the book concludes with words of hope, grounded in God’s forgiveness. Despair and adversity may persist for a season, but winter will eventually turn to spring. Renewed lives will blossom forth from God’s compassion.

The God of Micah and the prophets is a suffering God, moved to lament and anguish by the suffering in the world. It seems infidelity to God leads to infidelity to the neighbor. Fortunately, God also delights in forgiveness and remains faithful to ancient promises.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “behind the text” of Micah. How might geopolitical events have shaped Micah’s messages?
• According to Micah, what are the “sins of the house of Israel” and the reasons for his oracles of judgment against both Samaria and Jerusalem? Be specific, using quotations from the text to support your answer.
• What role does creation play in divine judgment? What about divine forgiveness?
• According to Micah, what does a hope-filled future look like? Give at least two examples, using the text to support your answer.
• Using the book of Micah, compare human nature to God’s nature. Be sure to highlight similarities as well as differences.
• Interpret the imagery in Micah 4:1–5. What, according to Micah, is the key to averting violence and war?

Chapter 36: Nahum

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Nahum, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, very little is known about Nahum of Elkosh himself, because neither the prophet nor his location is mentioned anywhere else in the Old Testament. Since Nahum 3:8 mentions the fall of Thebes at the hands of the Assyrian king Assurbanipal (663 BCE), the book was likely composed after that event. It also describes the fall of Nineveh (612 BCE) as a future event. Therefore, scholars propose that Nahum was written, in one form or another, after 663 and before (or even shortly after) 612 BCE. Nahum himself was likely the original author of this poetic piece, writing for an audience of Israelites.

The superscription identifies the book’s contents as an oracle received in a vision by Nahum. The remainder of chapter 1 comprises a theophanic hymn about Yahweh’s wrath. God, as a great warrior, stirs up creation “in whirlwind and storm” to take vengeance against his enemies (1:3). The people of Israel herald God’s violence as a vehicle for both retribution and peace. The divine warrior will end the terrifying reign of the Assyrians and usher in safety and security for Israel.

The second chapter continues with an oracle about Nineveh’s destruction, described in disturbing detail of violence, gore, and chaos. With clustered staccato lines, the poem portrays blood-soaked warriors, flashing metal, frenzied war machines, buckling knees, and melting hearts (2:3–10). This depiction of carnage continues in chapter 3 as a direct address to Nineveh about its wrongdoings. According to Nahum, Nineveh will be punished and (mis)treated like a woman of harlotry—publicly exposed, shamed, and abused—and no one will come to her rescue. The poem continues to mock and insult Nineveh, fostering a spiteful and disparaging tone. In response to Nineveh’s demise, the rest of the world will clap and cheer. After all, asks the prophet, “Who has not suffered from [her] unceasing malice?” (3:19 AT).

The central theological claim of Nahum is that God is a warrior who comes to free Israel and the other nations from Assyria’s cruel dominion. This warrior image ties to Yahweh’s identity as a king who protects the Israelites, establishes justice, and defeats chaos. However cavalier this sounds, Nahum can be a deeply uncomfortable book to read. For starters, it places God at the center of Nineveh’s violent downfall and the cruel, compassionless celebration that follows. For the Israelites, however, the arrival of the divine hero offers comfort and courage through a sense of vindication and protection. To them, God’s violence was a means of securing a future of flourishing and peace. This theological interpretation, however, does not excuse the book’s graphic illustration of Nineveh’s downfall in terms of sexual violence and public humiliation. These truly grotesque and shocking descriptions must be dealt with honestly and carefully.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “behind the text” of Nahum. How might the geopolitical events of the day have shaped Nahum’s messaging?
• What theological claims does Nahum make about God as both warrior and king? Be sure to support your answer with quotations from the text.
• How are the books of Nahum and Jonah similar to each another? Be sure to consider theological assertions as well as literary features in your answer.
• How might modern readers wrestle with the book’s disturbing descriptions of sexual violence and public humiliation? Describe at least two helpful approaches.

Chapter 37: Habakkuk

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Habakkuk, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the book of Habakkuk dates between 610 and 590 BCE, just before the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. During this time, Judah was governed by a quick succession of kings, including Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah. Textual evidence suggests that the text was composed during this time by Habakkuk himself, but it was later edited by Levitical priests who were responsible for the liturgical and musical markings throughout. Like many of the prophetic works, Habakkuk is poetic in style, but the piece is unique in that it consists of a dialogue between Habakkuk and Yahweh.

Habakkuk begins with the prophet praying a prayer for help (a lament psalm) and asking a question found frequently in the Psalter: “How long shall I plead for help, and you do not hear?” (1:2 AT). He goes on to list communal problems that have emerged from Yahweh’s silence, including “feeble” teaching, failed justice, and the triumph of the wicked (1:4 AT). God responds in an astonishing way by promising to send forth the Chaldeans (i.e., the Babylonians)—a fierce, violent, and idolatrous nation. The Chaldeans define justice on their own terms and interests. Habakkuk rejoins by protesting God’s words on theological grounds. He contends that the eyes of Yahweh are too pure to condone evil, and he appeals to Yahweh’s divine character.

After a brief period of waiting, God answers Habakkuk with another promise: “There will still be a vision for the appointed time,” and “If it delays, expect it, for it will surely come and will not linger” (2:3 AT). In other words, God will not stand by idly as evil gobbles up the world. His judgment will prevail after a season of persistence and waiting. Until the appointed time of the vision arrives, the righteous must “live by faith” (2:4 AT). The third and final chapter contains a psalm of praise by Habakkuk, who relishes the joy of freshly uncovered truth. The psalm also relays the vision God promised earlier, and it is terrifying. Yahweh, as a mighty general, marches across the earth with furor to shatter “the head from the evil house” (3:13 AT). Habakkuk is terrified at the image, but he maintains the faith to wait for God’s justice. The book concludes with the prophet’s defiant expression of praise, announcing his renewed hope and faith.

In terms of theological interpretation, the prophet Habakkuk questions the relationship between good and evil and why evil seems to prevail. He refers in particular to the destructive power of the Babylonian Empire, complaining about God’s tolerance of violence, injustice, and evil and his failure to save the righteous. These (in)actions directly contrast Habakkuk’s understanding of a good and just God. God, however, rekindles Habakkuk’s faith and hope for the future by promising that his visions will be fulfilled, the righteous will have the true reward, and the wicked will be punished. Yahweh’s justice may be delayed, but it is assured. Thus, faith requires defiant belief in the face of contradictory realities.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “behind the text.” How might the geopolitical realities of this world have shaped the contents of Habakkuk?
• According to Habakkuk, in what ways is idolatry a slippery slope to injustice? Use the text to support your answer.
• What theological claims does Habakkuk make about God’s character? How does his understanding of divine nature develop from the beginning of the text to the end?
• Overall, what is Habakkuk’s “answer” or response to the problem of evil in the world? Do you find this answer satisfactory or not?
• What might readers of Habakkuk, then and now, take away from the text in regard to their faith and relationship with God? Consider the topics of hope and (in)justice in your response.

Chapter 38: Zephaniah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Zephaniah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, Zephaniah was a southern prophet who focused on matters related to Judah and its rulers. If the information in Zephaniah 1:1 is accurate, Zephaniah was actually a relative of King Josiah, whose reign he may have criticized. The book of Zephaniah is largely a product of the Josianic era, though it probably underwent some minor editing later on. The text is a compendium of multiple genres commonly found in prophetic books, including oracles announcing doom, offers of repentance, oracles against foreign nations, and oracles of salvation.

The book of Zephaniah begins with a superscription that identifies the prophet as a descendant of King Hezekiah and thus as a relative of the Judean king Josiah. Verse 2 then quickly transitions into a dramatic description of impending doom, brought about because of Jerusalem’s idolatrous devotion to Baal, the heavenly hosts, and Molech. It appears human sin will catch all creation up in its destructive consequences. The dire scene will take place on the “day of the Lord” (1:7, 9–10, 14–16, 18). On this day, God also promises to “search Jerusalem with lamps,” using the light of divine scrutiny to track down sinners as well as those “indifferent” to God (1:12 AT). Thus, Zephaniah pleads with listeners to seek Yahweh, for hope remains in the righteous few who will persist beyond the cleansing fires of judgment.

The majority of chapter 2 is a collection of oracles against foreign nations and their gods, including those of Philistia, Moab, Ammon, Cush (Ethiopia), and Assyria. As head of all divine beings, Yahweh will “emaciate all the gods of the earth, and to him will bow, each from his own place, all of the world’s distant lands” (2:11 AT). Chapter 3 then turns its attention to the “violent city,” a place where the people (especially its leaders) are guilty of disobedience, oppression, defilement, faithlessness, and deception. Eventually, it becomes clear that the city in the crosshairs is none other than Jerusalem. The poem describes a day when God will “rise up as a witness” to gather the nations, unleash his wrath, and consume the earth (3:8 CEB). However, while this fire initially judges and punishes, it also refines. Yahweh promises to remove the arrogant and leave the humble to prosper. The book concludes with the promise that God will gather his people, restore their fortunes, and make them renowned among the people of the earth.

In terms of theological interpretation, the day of the Lord, according to Zephaniah, is inevitable. The only way to survive it is to commit to faith, righteousness, and humility. Even creation will be caught up in this day of judgment and redemption. However, creation is not merely the stage on which God’s redemptive work takes place; the redemption of creation itself is the drama. God’s creating acts and God’s saving acts go hand in hand. Some readers may struggle with God’s seemingly wrathful acts of judgment. It is important to realize, however, that such expressions of divine anger signaled divine love and faithfulness in the eyes of Zephaniah. It is God’s compassion that compels him to act on behalf of the oppressed.

Study Questions

• Scholars debate whether the book of Zephaniah was composed before, during, or after King Josiah’s reforms. Which dating do you find most compelling based on your reading of the text?
• For what sins will Jerusalem face God’s judgment? Who does Zephaniah inculpate in particular?
• What, according to Zephaniah, will take place on the day of the Lord? How does he advise the people to prepare for it?
• What role will creation play in the day of the Lord? What does this say about who God is and how God acts in the world?
• Describe God’s character according to Zephaniah. Be sure to address divine justice in your response.

Chapter 39: Haggai

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Haggai, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the book of Haggai was likely composed by the prophet himself and his followers. The world “in the text” takes place in Judah in 520 BCE, as Jews returned to their homeland after the Babylonian exile. The prophet Haggai was concerned about the welfare of the people during this time. The land had been destroyed during the Babylonian invasion and suffered from drought and plagues thereafter. Returnees also faced hostility from peoples living in the land, including those Jews who remained in Judah during the exile. Haggai’s name (“my festival”) reflects the overall message he delivered from God to the struggling people and their leaders: Rebuild the temple so my people can keep my festivals.

The book of Haggai is divided into four sections, each with a particular date and message. It opens with the following superscription: “In the second year of King Darius, in the sixth month, on the first day of the month, the word of the Lord came by the prophet Haggai to Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua son of Jehozadak, the high priest” (1:1). This date formula establishes the exact date of Haggai’s first message as August 29, 520 BCE. In his first message, the prophet criticizes the leaders of the returnees for failing to rebuild the temple. Although Zerubbabel and Joshua had laid the new foundation for the temple in 538 BCE, work was suspended and had not yet recommenced. Haggai proclaims that the land’s lack of fertility is ultimately the result of the temple lying unfinished. Supposedly, Zerubbabel and Joshua listened to Haggai and resumed construction.

In Haggai’s second message, the prophet asks the older generation to remember the first temple and God’s promise to remain with them always. He then declares that the “splendor” of the new temple “shall be greater than the former” and that prosperity will follow (2:7, 9). For his third message, Haggai questions the priests, reminding them of their duty to assist the people with ritual offerings and maintaining ritual cleanliness. Finally, the fourth message from the prophet, delivered the same day as the third, is given to Zerubbabel. Haggai announces the coming of an ideal messianic age, when God will overthrow all oppressive nations and make Zerubbabel “like a signet ring” (2:23). Just as a king would impress a document with his seal as a sign of royal authority, Zerubbabel will bear God’s authority and validation.

In terms of theological interpretation, the prophet Haggai proclaims that the Lord is sovereign over all creation. Moreover, the prophet believes that the temple is the epicenter of God’s presence in the world and the place where the heavenly and earthly realms meet. Haggai reasons that the land is impoverished because the temple remains in shambles. Thus, restoring the temple so that worship and offerings might resume would please the Lord, who would then bless all creation with abundance. Finally, Haggai appears to be familiar with the messianic theology of 2 Samuel 7, in which the Lord promises David that one of his descendants will forever be king over the people. In Haggai’s version of that faith, Zerubbabel will be the one to restore the Davidic rule of the people.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “in the text.” What sorts of tensions and struggles did the Jewish people face in Judah after the exile?
• According to Haggai, how does God act in the world? Use quotations from the text to support your answer.
• What, according to Haggai, is the significance of the temple? Why is Haggai so concerned about rebuilding it?
• Who does Haggai primarily address throughout the text? What is significant about his intended audience?
• What does Haggai mean when he proclaims that God will make Zerubbabel “like a signet ring,” for the Lord had chosen him (2:23)? How does this message tie into the messianic theology of 2 Samuel 7?

Chapter 40: Zechariah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Zechariah, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

Like the prophet Haggai, Zechariah prophesied in Judah in the late sixth century BCE. At this time, Judah (called “Yehud”) was a province under the Persian Empire, and Zerubbabel served as governor. Zechariah himself was born in Babylon and moved to Judah with other returnees from the exile. He came from a priestly family and succeeded his grandfather Iddo as head of the Levitical tribe. Chapters 1–8 faithfully recount Zechariah’s prophetic visions. Chapters 9–14, however, embody a distinct poetic style and vernacular, perhaps suggesting someone other than Zechariah composed them.

Zechariah begins by describing Israel’s past sins and failure to respond to the prophetic call to repent, which led to the exile and the ultimate repentance of the exiles. He then alternates between apocalyptic visions and traditional prophetic messages. In his first vision, the prophet sees a man riding a horse with three other horses behind him. An angel explains that the horses have patrolled the earth and that God has brought peace and will bring grace to Judah. Similarly, the angel explains through a second vision that the Lord will strike down the nations that scattered Judah. A third vision, this one of a man surveying Jerusalem, signifies that Judah will be inhabited and protected. Zechariah therefore urges the exiles to return to the land. In his last initial vision, Zechariah sees the high priest Joshua dressed in filthy clothes, along with Satan. Satan is rebuked, and Joshua’s dirty garments are replaced with festal apparel. Joshua is told, “You shall rule my house . . . , and I will give you the right of access” to God’s deliberations in the heavenly court, a position previously granted to kings only (3:7). Joshua is also told, “I am going to bring my servant the Branch” (3:8). “Servant” and “Branch” were names of the Davidic king, here meaning that one day the Lord would send a royal figure—namely, the Messiah.

Zechariah has four more visions, symbolizing developments like the completion of the temple, divine judgment against nations and peoples who violate God’s laws, the banishment of sin from the land, and God’s universal reign. A series of traditional prophetic messages follows this cluster of visions, signaling things like the priestly leadership of the people, the coming of a man called the Branch, and the restoration of Zion. A lengthy message then condemns Judah’s neighbors and announces good news for Judah. The remaining chapters are held together by the recurrent poetic phrase “on that day.” This phrase is often used to announce the coming redemptive action of the Lord. In this case, the Lord promises to redeem Judah by restoring the Davidic kingdom, renewing prosperity in the land, and reuniting people from the diaspora.

In terms of theological interpretation, Zechariah’s view of God centers on the temple and the blessings that flow from right worship. The notion that God had chosen Jerusalem as his dwelling place was a central tenet of Judah’s royal theology. God would be faithful to both Jerusalem and to the line of David. Even when the people were sinful, the Lord would punish them but never remove his steadfast love. Just as God was faithful to the Davidic line, God promises to be faithful to the ideal Davidic king to come.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “in the text.” What sorts of tensions and struggles did the Jewish people face in Judah after the exile?
• What change does Zechariah announce regarding the role of the priesthood? Explain the political and theological significance of this change.
• Summarize and interpret two of Zechariah’s visions. What do each of these visions illustrate about God and God’s relationship with his chosen people?
• According to Zechariah, who is “the Branch”? What is his significance within Judah’s royal theology?
• According to Zechariah, what will justice and salvation look like for Judah? Use quotations from the text to support your answer.

Chapter 41: Malachi

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Malachi, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the book of Malachi was composed sometime after the rededication of the temple in 516/515 BCE, likely between 450 and 430 BCE. Most believe Malachi lived and prophesied in Jerusalem. During this time, Jerusalem held great social tensions, especially between returnees from the exile and the “people of the land” (i.e., people who had been resettled in the promised land by the Assyrians or were Israelites who had intermarried with them). The people of the land worshiped both Yahweh and other gods, so major religious conflicts arose over the issue of intermarriage with these people and also whether these people could participate in temple worship. Malachi (whose name means “my messenger”) addressed these conflicts through traditional prophetic messages of salvation and judgment.

The book of Malachi follows a series of questions and answers as the prophet addresses issues plaguing the people. All issues revolve around the ultimate dilemma—that is, the Lord’s refusal to accept their offerings and to bless them. In the first dispute (1:2–5), Malachi contrasts God’s love for “Jacob” (the nation of Judah) with God’s hatred for “Esau” (the nation of Edom). Through the prophet, God promises that Judah will see Edom’s humiliation. Malachi continues by condemning the priests for sacrificing impure offerings and failing to lead others in pious faith, thus corrupting the vocation of the priesthood. Similarly, Malachi criticizes Judah as a whole for “profan[ing] the sanctuary of the Lord” by marrying “the daughter of a foreign god” (2:11). This is likely a reference to the intermarriage between the people of Judah and the people of the land. Malachi is equally critical of divorce. In Malachi 2:14–16, the prophet offers the strongest condemnation of divorce within the Bible, castigating any man who is unfaithful to and divorces the “wife of his youth,” regardless of her heritage.

The next passage announces God’s plan to correct the people’s idolatry, impurity, and injustice. God will send “my messenger” to purify the people by bearing witness against the likes of sorcerers, adulterers, and oppressors of the poor (3:1). This could refer to the prophet himself, another contemporary or future figure, or perhaps the prophet Elijah. Regardless, Malachi encourages the people to “bring the full tithe” to the storehouse and promises that God will “pour down for you an overflowing blessing” of fertility and protection for the land (3:10–11). At the same time, the arrogant and evildoers will be caught in God’s judgment that burns like an oven. Finally, the book of Malachi concludes with a command to remember the laws God passed on to Moses. Malachi also speaks of a day when the prophet Elijah will return to “turn the hearts of parents to their children” and vice versa so that God will not curse the land (4:5–6).

In terms of theological interpretation, Malachi emphasizes God’s justice and faithfulness to the righteous. The prophet reasons that the Lord is refusing to receive the people’s offerings and to bless them because the priests offer impure offerings, the people worship false gods and cheat on their tithes, and the men divorce the wives of their youth. If they stop doing these things, God will grant prosperity.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “in the text.” How do tensions within this world, especially religious and social tensions, shape Malachi’s prophetic ministry?
• What answers does Malachi give to the question, Why is God not accepting our offerings? Give at least three distinct answers from the text.
• Summarize Malachi’s position on divorce. Why is it important to read this passage with the sociohistorical lens of post-exilic Judah?
• Who might “the messenger” be, as named in the book of Malachi? What is the messenger’s role?
• Based on the book of Malachi, how would you describe God’s sense of justice? How does God’s justice affect all creation?