Overview

Welcome!

Student eSources for Introducing the Old Testament include chapter summaries, study questions, and flash cards of key terms. Verified professors can access a test bank and PowerPoints on the downloads page.

Flashcards can be found on the chapter pages, but you can also access the Quizlet folder containing all chapters here. The terms for later chapters are grouped by section.

Chapter 1: The Old Testament World

Chapter Summary

The Old Testament writings need to be understood within the historical context of the world in which they were produced—the world of the ancient Near East.

The oldest traditions of the Old Testament date back to prehistory (prior to 1500 BCE), beginning with the period of the matriarchs and patriarchs. During this time, Israel’s story began as a family story, including the lives of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, Rachel, Leah, and Joseph. The book of Genesis ends by recounting how Jacob and his family end up in Egypt, where the Israelites are soon enslaved. This period of slavery in and exodus from Egypt (1500–1240 BCE) includes the stories of Israel’s new covenantal relationship with God, the gift of the law, and their wilderness journey.

Between 1200 and 1000 BCE, Israel came of age in the “promised land” of Canaan through the formation of twelve tribes led by judges. Eventually, these twelve tribes were united under a single king, Saul, followed by David and his son Solomon. During this united monarchy (1025–922 BCE), Jerusalem became Israel’s capital, and Solomon built Israel’s first temple. In 922 BCE, internal and external pressures severed Israel in two, creating the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern Kingdom of Judah. The relationship between the two kingdoms was fraught with political, religious, and theological differences. Eventually, the Northern Kingdom was conquered by the Assyrians in 722/721 BCE, and the people were exiled to Assyria. The Southern Kingdom remained autonomous until 586 BCE, when it was conquered by the Babylonians and the people were exiled to Babylon and Egypt.

In 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon and gave the Judean exiles permission to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. During this time of diaspora, some exiles returned home while others continued to live in foreign lands and formed Jewish communities centered around the Torah laws. In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great of Greece conquered the Persian Empire, leading to the Hellenistic period and the domination of Greek culture, language, and military occupation. However, in 165 BCE, Jewish fighters rebelled against the Seleucid overlord and regained independence and control of the temple for a time. It was during this Hasmonean period that many of the Old Testament books were written and developed.

Finally, the Old Testament world also needs to be understood in light of prevailing social systems and cultural values. Ancient Israel operated via agricultural activity and a kinship-based social system. Like many peoples of the ancient Near East, the Israelites were henotheistic in their religious beliefs, seeing the universe as enchanted by gods, goddesses, demons, and semidivine beings.

Study Questions

• Indicate the roles that each of the following rulers played in the lives of the Israelites and the shaping of the stories of the Old Testament: Solomon, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus the Great, and Alexander the Great.
• Consider the people of Israel’s convoluted relationship with their neighbors in Egypt. In what ways were they allies? In what ways were they enemies?
• Compare and contrast the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Be sure to include their key cities, political systems, and falls from autonomy.
• Explain the significance of the temple to Jewish identity, religion, and culture. How did the destruction of the temple shape the people’s understanding of themselves in relation to God?
• Describe the life of the Israelites during the Persian period. How did the political, cultural, and social events of this time shape their religious beliefs and the contents of the Old Testament?
• Describe the life of the Israelites during the Hellenistic and Hasmonean periods. Again, how did the political, cultural, and social events of this time shape their religious beliefs and the contents of the Old Testament?
• How did the system of kinship shape daily life in ancient Israel? What sorts of roles and responsibilities did people have depending on their tribe and gender?
• Define henotheism. Compare and contrast it with polytheism, monolatry, and monotheism.

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 2: The Old Testament Writings

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the history of the Old Testament, including discussions on Old Testament canons and their development.

The book that Christians know today as the “Old Testament” was the book that Second Temple Jews knew as “the Scriptures” or the Tanak. Tanak represents an acronym for the organization of the Scriptures into three categories: Torah (Pentateuch), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The Tanak was originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic, but in the last three centuries BCE, scribes in Alexandria translated it into Greek. This version, the Septuagint (abbreviated LXX), includes fifteen extra books called the Apocrypha. Most Catholic and Orthodox Christians accept the Apocrypha as “canon” or authoritative, while Protestants and Jews do not.

There were many different ways of ordering the Old Testament writings. One of these ways survives in Judaism, and others survive in Christianity. All begin with the Pentateuch or the Torah—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These books relay the origin stories of the universe, the people of Israel, and the laws that God gave to the Israelites. In the Protestant Bible, the next collection of books is the Historical Books (Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther), which continue Israel’s story from the death of Moses to the return from the exile. Third are the poetry books (Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs or Song of Solomon), which serve as a collection of spiritual poetry for use in the life of faith. The final two sections, the Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah [with Lamentations] Ezekiel, and Daniel) and the Minor Prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi), include prophetic messages and descriptions of the prophets’ actions.

The Old Testament as we know it today developed over at least a millennium. Much of its content first existed as oral tradition before it was gradually written down by Jewish scribes. Each “book” (e.g., Genesis) would have been transcribed as an individual scroll, and scrolls were later copied and bound together in book-like collections called a codex (e.g., the Pentateuch). Many such scrolls and collections were created and preserved by Second Temple Jews between 250 BCE and 70 CE. Archaeologists discovered hundreds of these original texts in 1946 in Palestine, calling them the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Originally, Biblical Hebrew was a consonantal writing system in which symbols represented only consonantal sounds, not vowel sounds. After the destruction of the second temple in 70 CE, Judaism became text centered rather than temple centered, at which point clarity and accuracy became extremely important to Jews. Thus, scribes eventually developed systems for ensuring that consonants were copied consistently—a process referred to as the stabilization of the text. Vowels were later developed around 600 CE and stabilized in 1000 CE by Jewish scribes called the Masoretes. Finally, chapter numbers and verses were added in 1200 and 1661, respectively, for purposes of navigation.

Study Questions

• How do order and categorization influence the ways in which we interpret the books of the Old Testament? Exemplify your answer.
• Using boxes 2.3 and 2.4, compare and contrast the Jewish canon with the Christian canons. How did language influence the development of the different canons?
• Summarize the five plausible phases of the Old Testament’s reconstruction. What are some types of textual clues scholars look for in order to understand the development of the Old Testament?
• How did the destruction of the second temple in 70 CE influence the development of the Hebrew Bible in particular and Judaism in general?
• What are the Dead Sea Scrolls? Why was their discovery so significant?
• Who were the Masoretes? What contributions did they make to the development of the Hebrew Bible?
• In general, what is the difference between the “world behind the text” and the “world in the text”? Why is it important for modern biblical interpreters to understand both contexts?

Flashcards of Key Terms

If the flashcards below aren’t working, you can also access them here.

Chapter 3: The Pentateuch

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the Pentateuch, including its composition and contents.

The name “Pentateuch” comes from the Greek pentateuchos, meaning “five books” and representing its contents: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. In Hebrew, this collection is referred to as Torah, meaning “instruction.” It may also be called the Books of Moses, both because Moses is the central human character in Exodus through Deuteronomy and because traditionally Moses is held to be its author. Furthermore, in Exodus 20, God reveals the law through Moses, so many legal and ethical passages of the Pentateuch are called the Mosaic law. Several other well-known passages from the Bible come from the Pentateuch as well, such as those dealing with God’s creation of the world in seven days and the flood. Thus, the Pentateuch has shaped how countless people for thousands of years have conceptualized God, humanity, and the universe.

In terms of composition, the Pentateuch was likely the earliest subsection of the Old Testament to come together, but there is much debate about how this came to be. Most famously, one eighteenth-century biblical scholar, Jean Astruc, hypothesized that Genesis in particular may have been developed from two sources. One he called “E” (because it referred to God as “Elohim”), and the other he called “J” (because it referred to God as “Yahweh” or, in German, “Jahweh”). This view developed through the contributions and critiques of many other scholars, eventually becoming known as the Documentary Hypothesis. Ultimately, the four sources of the Documentary Hypothesis were named J (the Yahwist, written ca. 950 BCE in Judah), E (the Elohist, written ca. 850 BCE in Israel), D (the Deuteronomic source, written ca. 750 BCE in Israel), and P (the Priestly source, written ca. 550­–500 BCE in exile in Babylon). Many interpreters in conservative traditions have never accepted the Documentary Hypothesis and hold to the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. Others have accepted only parts of the Hypothesis and challenge others. Nevertheless, the Documentary Hypothesis has been enormously helpful in showing readers how to interpret the text against its specific sociohistorical background in order that it might be understood more accurately. Scholars interested in identifying and studying these aspects of the text are called source critics. Other methods to studying the Pentateuch include literary and canonical approaches.

The Pentateuch comprises many types of literature, primarily theological narratives. Theological narratives convey stories from an “anonymous” or “implied” narrator (often different from the historical author) to an “implied” ancient audience. All narratives in the Pentateuch are theological in that their overriding concern is with God, God’s people, and God’s creation. Aside from theological narratives, the Pentateuch also contains Israel’s legal and ethical traditions, ritual and religious materials, poems, songs, and genealogies. All of these genres come together to raise and address the Pentateuch’s driving question: What is the benevolent Creator going to do with a broken creation in which human creatures make rebellious and wicked choices? Yahweh responds with three promises, passed on to the people through Abraham and Sarah: a land, many descendants, and the blessing. Throughout the five books, one or more of these promises is always at risk, but God continuously finds ways to remain faithful to all three.

Study Questions

• What claims does the Documentary Hypothesis make about the authorship and composition of the Pentateuch? Be sure to name and differentiate the four primary sources of the hypothesis.
• Summarize some of the arguments both for and against the Documentary Hypothesis. Which line of reasoning do you find most compelling, and why?
• Describe the “literary” and “canonical” approaches to interpreting the Pentateuch. What are the strengths of these approaches?
• What is the primary genre of the Pentateuch? How does this type of literature present the text’s author, audience, and characters?
• Name at least two types of literature in the Pentateuch. What are the main features of each?
• What three major themes interweave to shape the plot of the Pentateuch? What is the primary setting, and who are the main characters?
• What overall question or problem does the Pentateuch raise? How does God address it?

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 4: Genesis

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Genesis, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, most modern scholars attribute Genesis to the work of Second Temple scribes after the Babylonian exile, although historic tradition attributes authorship to Moses. These Second Temple scribes edited together both prehistoric and historic literature of several genres, including theological narratives, genealogies, songs, and poetry.

The name “Genesis” derives from the Greek word for “to be born,” a nod to the first words of Genesis, “in [the] beginning.” The stories of Genesis follow two major themes of origin: the beginnings of life, brokenness, and God’s commitment to creation (Gen. 1–11) and the beginnings of the people of Israel, including the stories of the matriarchs and patriarchs Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, Rachel, Leah, and Joseph (Gen. 12–50). Within these themes, Genesis portrays God as the transcendent, omnipotent Creator and sustainer of life, who brings order and goodness out of chaos through balance and relationship. However, God is also intimate with creation, establishing faithful, covenantal relationships with God’s chosen people. Therefore, Genesis wrestles with two timeless questions: What will the Creator do with a broken, violent, rebellious creation? And how will God keep all three promises of the Abrahamic covenant for blessing, land, and descendants?

Ultimately, throughout Genesis’s tales of creation and destruction, blessing and sin, loyalty and rebellion, God remains dedicated to the ongoing work of reconciliation and redemption.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “behind the text” of Genesis. How does the world behind the text shape the four types of literature in Genesis?
• Describe key features of the world “in the text” of Genesis. Give examples, using the story of Noah.
• Compare the two accounts of creation at the beginning of Genesis. How is God portrayed in each of them?
• What are the four parts of a covenant? Exemplify these parts using the Abrahamic covenant.
• Summarize the main events that take place as the covenant passes from Abraham to Isaac to Jacob. Be sure to include the characters of Hagar, Ishmael, Rebekah, and Esau.
• What are the various struggles and resolutions in the life of Jacob? How does Jacob’s life fit into the “big picture” questions that Genesis raises about God’s relationship with creation?
• Describe the life and role of women in ancient Israel according to Genesis. Consider the lives of the matriarchs as well as those of Hagar and Dinah.
• Name a few of the plot patterns in the story of Joseph. What do these patterns illustrate about the natures of God and humanity?
• What is the state of the covenant by the end of Genesis? Which promises appear fulfilled, and which are unresolved?
• What is the significance of names and name changes in Genesis? Give at least two examples.

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 5: Exodus

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Exodus, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the events recorded in Exodus likely took place between 1300 and 1220 BCE. Most modern scholars believe Exodus was composed around the year 540 BCE by Judean exiles who returned to Jerusalem from Babylon (people in very similar circumstances as the liberated Israelites from Egypt). Historic tradition, however, attributes authorship to Moses.

The story that Exodus tells is the most important story of the Old Testament because of the foundational theological claims it makes about the God of Israel, Israel’s identity in relationship to God, and what a right relationship with God looks like. Exodus begins with events occurring a few hundred years after the final events of Genesis, with the Israelites still residing in the land of Egypt, now under the rule of an anonymous pharaoh (likely Ramesses II) who “did not know Joseph” (Exod. 1:8)[1]. Although the people had multiplied as God promised, they were enslaved far from the promised land. Thus, the first fifteen chapters of Exodus capture a battle of sorts between Pharaoh and God for lordship over the people of Israel. This section includes the miraculous upbringing and calling of Moses, the ten plagues of Egypt, and the eventual escape of the Israelites through the parting of the Red Sea. Throughout the dramatic exodus from Egypt and the wilderness wanderings that follow, God repeatedly hears the cries of his people and, remembering his covenant promises to Abraham, faithfully responds to their needs.

When the Israelites reach Mount Sinai, God establishes a new covenant with them. God promises to treat the people as his “treasured possession,” and God calls them to be for him “a priestly kingdom and a holy nation” (Exod 19:5, 6). Moses then receives two stone tablets from God, etched with the parameters of this renewed relational agreement—the Ten Commandments. The people construct the ark of the covenant to hold the tablets with the commandments, and they also build God a mobile temple, the tabernacle. The remainder of the book of Exodus follows the Israelites as they struggle to uphold their end of the covenant promises. Although they prove themselves ungrateful, impatient, and weak in faith over and over again, God remains merciful, gracious, and faithful toward them.

[1] Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Study Questions

• At the beginning of Exodus, in what ways do the promises of the Abrahamic covenant appear fulfilled? In what ways do they appear in limbo?
• Describe the role that each of the following women play in the salvation and upbringing of Moses: Shiphrah, Puah, Moses’s mother, Miriam, and Pharaoh’s daughter. What does the early life of Moses reveal about who God is and how God acts?
• What are the terms and the sign of the Mosaic covenant? How does the Decalogue further shape this relational agreement between God and Israel?
• In what ways are Israel’s laws similar to those of other ancient Near Eastern law codes? In what ways are they unique?
• Using Exodus 32, the story of the golden calf, describe how Exodus portrays the character of God vis-à-vis the character of the Israelites. Elaborate using another story from Exodus.
• What is the difference between absolute laws and conditional (or caustic) laws? Give two examples of each from Exodus.
• How do the events of Exodus fit within the larger biblical narrative of God working to redeem a rebellious creation? Give at least two examples.

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 6: Leviticus

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Leviticus, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, modern scholars believe that Leviticus, like the other four books of the Pentateuch, was composed by Second Temple scribes following the Babylonian exile. In the world “behind the text,” the Israelites were struggling to maintain a unified identity as a people spread into various geographic areas around the ancient Near East. The ritual, ethical, dietary, and economic laws laid out in Leviticus were therefore meant to separate the Israelites from other peoples and maintain their status as one holy nation of God’s chosen people.

Regarding the world “in the text,” Leviticus picks up right where Exodus left off, after the Lord’s descension into the tabernacle. Thus, the book consists mainly of ritual and legal requirements the Lord spoke to Moses as Moses stood outside the tent of meeting. It originally functioned as a priestly handbook of sorts for the Levitical priests living among the other tribes of Israel. The first sixteen chapters of Leviticus contain instructions for several different types of offerings. A sin offering, for example, was offered when an individual unintentionally violated a law, such as one of the Ten Commandments. Leviticus also prescribes guilt, burnt, well-being, and grain offerings depending on the individual’s or the community’s need for atonement, thanksgiving, or praise.

Chapters 17–26 are sometimes referred to as the Holiness Code, named for the repeated phrase in this section: “You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy” (19:2). Again, obedience to these laws illustrated Israel’s devotion to God and distinction from other ancient civilizations. These laws include dietary restrictions, ritual directions, and more social regulations. Most famously, Leviticus 18 discusses rules for sexual activity, including the prohibition of homosexual behavior—one of the most contested chapters in Old Testament literature today. Finally, Leviticus 27 serves as an appendix on vows and tithes.

In terms of theological themes, Leviticus consistently portrays the Lord as holy, and if the people want to share in God’s holiness and continue to have God dwell in their midst, they too must behave in a holy manner as prescribed in the law. However, the detailed descriptions of sin and guilt offerings show that human beings are incapable of following the law perfectly. God expects that sin will continue to disturb and threaten the people’s relationship with him and one another. Nevertheless, God uses the law as his gracious intrusion into the chaos of the human community in order to create a more trustworthy and just world.

Study Questions

• How do the laws in Leviticus relate to the terms of the Mosaic covenant? What function do they serve in God’s relational agreement with Israel?
• Compare the world “in the text” with the world “in front of the text.” How does an understanding of these two contexts help us make sense of the contents and significance of Leviticus?
• Compare a sin offering to a guilt offering using examples from Leviticus 4–5. Why were both types necessary?
• What were the ancient purposes of the dietary laws? How else have readers interpreted them?
• How was the significance or purpose of sexual activity viewed in the ancient world versus the modern Western world? Support your answer using Leviticus 18.
• Using Leviticus 25, describe what would occur during a Sabbatical year. What was distinct about the Year of Jubilee?
• Why was it important for the Israelites to observe the Day of Atonement every year? What does this suggest about the role sin plays in both relationships among humanity and with the divine?

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 7: Numbers

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Numbers, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, historic tradition attributes authorship of the book of Numbers to Moses. However, Numbers was likely compiled in its final form by priestly scribes during the Babylonian exile. Like the Israelites in Numbers, the exiled Israelites blamed their separation from the promised land on the failed leadership of past generations, and they too looked to a new, obedient generation to rekindle hope and restore them to the land.

Numbers follows two interwoven plotlines: (1) the journey of the people through the wilderness from Mount Sinai to the Jordan River (hence the Hebrew title of the book, Bemidbar, or “In the Wilderness”) and (2) the transition from one generation of God’s people to the next. The book has two mirrored halves, each beginning with a census (hence the title “Numbers”), followed by descriptions of ritual requirements and the journey to the promised land. The book begins where Exodus left off, with Moses, Aaron, and the exodus generation setting out from Mount Sinai. As the people journey, they lodge continuous complaints and rebellions against God about things like a lack of desirable food and water. Although the Lord continually provides for them and even grants them military victories over other peoples and territories, the people try to replace Moses and Aaron as leaders. When they reach the promised land, Moses sends spies to scout it out. They return, reporting that the land is incredibly fertile (“it flows with milk and honey,” Num. 13:27) but that it is also occupied by large, intimidating people. Instead of trusting God, the people complain and rebel, and so God forbids the exodus generation to live in the land. As a final act of rebellion, the people turn to worshiping the false god Baal of Peor, after which God sends a plague that kills off the remaining exodus generation.

Much like the first half of Numbers, the second half opens with a census of the people (now the descendants of the exodus generation), thereby signaling a fresh start. This section includes the hope-filled story of Zelophehad’s daughters, who appeal to God for rights and legal protection. They receive a divine ruling in their favor, officially allowing them to inherit their father’s land. God then appoints Joshua as Moses’s successor and delivers additional laws through him, including the provision of a religious calendar for the Israelites to follow in the promised land. Finally, God leads the Israelites to victory over the Midianites, conquering the land east of the Jordan River, where the Israelites at last conclude their wilderness journey.

In terms of theological themes, Numbers highlights the ways in which God works through law and promise to uphold life. The book also focuses heavily on Israel’s journey with God through hardships, scarcity, and the wild-ness of the wilderness. Therefore, wilderness has become a meaningful metaphor for those who struggle with God, God’s people, the Bible, and life itself—a struggle through which one seeks the abundance of God’s goodness and grace.

Study Questions

• The Hebrew name for the book of Numbers is Bemidbar. Why are both Numbers and Bemidbar appropriate names for this text?
• Describe the world “behind the text” of Numbers. How did this world likely shape the overall message and themes of the book? Why would the story of Numbers have mattered in such a world?
• How does Numbers portray the Levitical priests and their significance to the world “in the text”? Be sure to give examples from the text.
• Compare two stories from Numbers in which the people complained and/or rebelled against God. What do these stories illustrate about God’s character and how God acts in the world?
• Summarize the people’s encounter with King Balak of Moab and the prophet Balaam. How does this story portray the God of Israel, compared to foreign prophets and rulers?
• Summarize the people’s rebellious act of worship and the response of Phinehas, grandson of Aaron. What consequences, both positive and negative, result from this episode?
• What issue do the daughters of Zelophehad bring before God? What is God’s ruling, and why is it significant for both the world behind the text and to readers today?

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 8: Deuteronomy

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Deuteronomy, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the writings within Deuteronomy likely span a large timeframe, with some dating back to the time of Moses. The heart of the book of Deuteronomy (Deut. 4:44–28:68), referred to today as the Deuteronomic Book of the Torah, was likely its own independent scroll originally. Based on clues within the text, most scholars believe that the Northern Kingdom preserved this scroll when Israel split in 922 BCE. Two hundred years later, after the Assyrians conquered the Northern Kingdom, refugees from the north brought the “scroll of the Torah” to Jerusalem. They stored it in the temple and presumably forgot about it until the reign of King Josiah (ca. 620 BCE). Second Kings 22:22–23 highlights the Jews’ rediscovery of the “book of the law” while refurbishing the temple. It was then that scribes redacted Deuteronomy into its full and final composition.

The book of Deuteronomy acts as both the last book of the Pentateuch and the first book of the Deuteronomistic History—the texts documenting Israel’s story from their entrance into the promised land to the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile. The majority of Deuteronomy is made up of four sermons supposedly delivered by Moses to the second generation of Exodus people as they prepared to enter the promised land. In the first sermon (Deut. 1:1–4:43), Moses recalls Israel’s history from their departure from Mount Sinai to their arrival in the Transjordan. This section emphasizes God’s constant, relentless love and goodness, which are unearned but freely given to no other nation but Israel. Moses’s second sermon (Deut. 4:44–28:68) is commonly known as torah, meaning “instruction,” because it contains some of the most important legal and theological material in the Old Testament, including the Ten Commandments, the great Shema, the law of the king, and the ancient liturgy of firstfruits. Torah reminds all who study it of God’s ongoing covenant promises. In his third sermon (Deut. 29:1–32:52), Moses speaks of the renewal of the covenant made at Mount Sinai, but he reframes the commandments and conditions of this covenant as promises from God. Finally, Moses’s fourth sermon contains a farewell blessing on the people, thereby illustrating how Israel’s ultimate fate is blessing brought about by God’s faithfulness.

In terms of theological themes, Deuteronomy elevates the law as the outlet through which God bestows life, prosperity, and blessing on the people. Deuteronomy understands God’s life-giving law as dynamic, adapting to new times, circumstances, conditions, and technologies. The text also employs a theology of memory. By remembering the suffering of their ancestors in Egypt and God’s demonstrations of grace and deliverance, the people are to lead ethical lives of humility and a unified identity in God.

Study Questions

• Describe the world “behind the text” of Deuteronomy. How did the political events of this world shape the development of Deuteronomy as we know it today?
• How do the other books of the Old Testament help us make sense of the contents and theology of Deuteronomy? Give some examples, using at least two additional books.
• Describe the world “within the text.” In light of this world, why is “Deuteronomic Book of Torah” an appropriate name for the contents and theology of Deuteronomy?
• Summarize some of the key similarities and differences between the laws in Exodus and Deuteronomy. Give a specific example showing how Deuteronomy builds on and reframes some of the laws within Exodus.
• What, according to Deuteronomy, is the importance of the law? Compare the law’s divine purpose to its social function.
• How does the theology of memory expressed throughout Deuteronomy shape the ways we understand God and God’s character vis-à-vis humanity? Use the first sermon of Moses to exemplify your thinking.
• Summarize the main ideas expressed in the Shema. What is the significance of the Shema to Jews in the ancient world and today?

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 9: The Historical Books

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief introduction to the Historical Books of the Old Testament, including an overview of their contents, composition, and theology.

The Historical Books include Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. These are the books that tell Israel’s history from the death of Moses and the emergence into the promised land (ca. 1280–1220 BCE) to the end of the Old Testament period (ca. 433 BCE). The Historical Books were not so much authored as they were compiled, likely by schools of scribes who collected source material and then created connecting material. They are “historical” in the sense that they feature written, narrative accounts of events from Israel’s past in roughly chronological order. However, these texts were primarily intended to preserve religious truths as opposed to historical facts.

Scholars refer to the “compiler” of the Deuteronomistic History (DH)—the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings (except Ruth)—as the “Deuteronomist.” The Deuteronomist narrates Israel’s history from their departure from Mount Sinai to the Babylonian exile, including the period of the divided monarchy and the fates of both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. The DH was compiled in its final form after 560 BCE, possibly as a single edition or as a dual edition, as the Deuteronomist sought to explain why God allowed Jerusalem to be destroyed and the chosen people to go into exile. Ultimately, the Deuteronomist blames Israel’s poor fortune on the disobedience of its kings to the Torah. Nevertheless, the DH shows how God remains faithful to the covenant, in spite of the infidelity of the Israelites, throughout their repeated cycles of sin, judgment, repentance, deliverance, and peace.

The Chronistic History (CH) then includes the books of 1–2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Scholars refer to the compiler of these books as “the Chronicler.” The Chronicler tells of Israel’s monarchic and exile periods, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem (ca. 450–433 BCE). For the period of the divided monarchy, however, the CH tells only the story of the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

Study Questions

• Why is this section of the Old Testament referred to as the Historical Books? What sort of history does it tell?
• What is the predominant genre of the Historical Books? What are the key literary features of this genre?
• What is the difference between “source material” and “connecting material”? Give an example of each.
• Describe the world “behind the text” of the DH. How might an understanding of this world shape the way we read these texts and discern their purpose?
• Describe the single-edition theory and the dual-edition theory of the DH. What is the evidence supporting each theory?
• Scholars debate whether or not the DH expresses hope for Israel’s future. What do you think? Use evidence from the text to support your answer.
• According to the Historical Books, in what ways does God appear active in history? Give at least three different examples.

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 10: Joshua

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Joshua, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the book of Joshua was likely compiled by a school of scribes around 586–539 BCE, at the time of the Babylonian exile. The compilers of Joshua therefore emphasize to the people that they are part of a long history of disobedience to God, but God always remains faithful to them. Nevertheless, Joshua is one of the most troubling books in the Old Testament in terms of both its historical and theological claims. For example, while there is some evidence to suggest that a few Israelite towns and cities emerged during the time of Joshua (ca. 1213 and 1203 BCE), archaeology also shows how certain cities named in Joshua, such as Jericho and Ai, were likely not occupied by the Israelites during this time.

Joshua opens with God’s promise to be with Joshua, just as God promised to be with Moses. God encourages Joshua to be “strong and courageous” (e.g., Josh. 1:6). The Israelites then prepare to conquer Canaan by marching into the land behind a priestly procession of the ark. The river parts ways for them like it did for the exodus generation. After some time of ritual preparation, the people begin a bloody military campaign under God’s orders. Seven priests with trumpets and shofars march around the walls of the city of Jericho for seven days, they give a mighty shout, and the walls collapse. The Israelites then enter and destroy the city and its residents. Although five foreign kings ally to defeat Israel, the Israelites conquer them one by one. They then divide the land tribe by tribe, with the exception of the Levites, who are allotted towns in all territories. In the end, Joshua gathers the people at Shechem for a ritual of covenant renewal, and he reminds the people to be faithful to God and to the laws of the Torah. The book then concludes with Joshua’s death and burial.

In terms of its theological interpretation, Joshua makes both uplifting and disturbing claims about God’s actions and intentions. On the one hand, Joshua illustrates God’s faithfulness to the divine promises made to Abraham and Sarah by at last delivering the people to the promised land. However, God’s faithfulness comes at a violent price, particularly when God supposedly commands the people to destroy every living thing in Jericho, young and old, animal and human. The theological and historical controversies about the divine conquest of the land remain highly contested today.

Study Questions

• In what ways does Joshua’s leadership of the people mirror that of Moses’s? Give at least two examples from the text.
• Summarize the story of Rahab as recorded in the beginning of Joshua. Why is her role both surprising and significant to the plot?
• In what ways do the people renew their covenant with God? What might this suggest to us about how we may maintain our relationship with God?
• Summarize the story of Achan. What do Achan’s actions illustrate about the meaning and significance of herem?
• What is Joshua’s final command to the people? Why might he have chosen these as his last words to them?
• According to the book of Joshua, what qualities and behaviors make a good leader? Support your answer with examples from the text.
• Describe the world “behind the text” of Joshua. How might a critical understanding of this world help us interpret the contents of Joshua and its significance to readers, then and now?
• Describe the three plausible models of how Israel came to the promised land. In what ways does archeology both support and refute these models?

Chapter 11: Judges

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Judges, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, the Deuteronomistic Historian likely compiled Judges either around the time of Josiah’s reformation (ca. 620 BCE) or during the Babylonian exile (ca. 560 BCE). While the primary genre is theological-historical, Judges contains a variety of texts, including lists of Israel’s judges, oral tradition stories from various tribes, ancient psalms, written narratives, and geographical descriptions.

Regarding the world “in the text,” Judges picks up Israel’s story from the end of Joshua and covers its history from about 1220 to 1020 BCE. Whereas Joshua left the people in a sound position (in possession of the promised land and fostering a faithful relationship with God), Judges calls Israel’s security into question. Judges 1 opens with a description of the foreign peoples in the land, and battles for land and autonomy ensue. Under the rule of political and military figures called “judges,” the tribes were supposed to unite to defend the people and their land. However, this system failed repeatedly. For example, when King Jabin of Hazor oppresses the people of Ephraim, the prophet and judge Deborah sounds a call to arms, but few tribes respond. Following the death of Deborah, the Midianites arise to oppress the Israelites, so God appoints Gideon of Manasseh as judge and warrior. Gideon demands various signs as assurances that the Lord will be with him. He eventually leads the Israelites into battle against the Midianites and is victorious. The Israelites then ask Gideon to be their king. He refuses, and the people revert to idol worship.

Without the spiritual character to remain true to God, the people live in cycles of infidelity and spiral into utter anarchy. Their downward spiral accelerates when Israel is under the leadership of unfaithful, power-hungry judges. For example, when Abimelech, son of Joshua, attempts to reign as king, a civil war breaks out. The people fare no better under Jephthah of Gilead, a mighty warrior, or Samson of Dan, a Nazarite with a violent temper and unchecked desire.

Judges ends with one of the most horrific stories in the Old Testament, a story about the rape and murder of a Levite’s concubine by a band of Benjaminites. The final verse of the book (“In those days there was no king in Israel; everyone did as he pleased,” 21:25 NJPS) summarizes the conditions of both Israel and humanity as chronically unfaithful, capable of great evil and endless sin.

Study Questions

• Compared to Joshua, there is little to no reference to Scripture in the book of Judges. What does this suggest both about the order of these books’ composition and about when laws and stories of sacred literature were written?
• Throughout Judges, what sorts of powers and behaviors threaten God’s ultimate leadership over God’s people? Give at least two examples.
• Study the Song of Deborah in Judges 5:1–31. What theological claims does it make?
• Summarize the life and leadership of Samson. How do his characteristics and fate compare to those of Israel as a whole?
• Do you think Gideon was a strong leader for Israel? In what ways did he serve the people and God, and in what ways did he fail them?
• Compare the status and well-being of women at the beginning of Judges and their status and well-being at the end. How does the welfare of women correlate with the health of society?
• Overall, what picture does Judges paint of the human condition? Support your answer with examples from the text.

Chapter 12: Ruth

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Ruth, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, very little is known about the authorship and date of Ruth’s composition. Based on literary features, scholars estimate Ruth was written sometime after the exile. Protestant Bibles situate Ruth between the books of Judges and 1 Samuel, because Ruth mentions the “days when the judges ruled” (1:1).

Ruth is a climactic and charming theological narrative about a young woman, Ruth, and her mother-in-law, Naomi. It is a story that, like many in the Old Testament, begins with loss and scarcity and ends with blessing, fertility, and security. The book of Ruth opens with Naomi and her husband, Elimelech, living in Bethlehem when there is famine in the land. They migrate to Moab, where their two sons marry a couple of local women, Ruth and Orpah. Tragically, all three men die, leaving Naomi, Ruth, and Orpah widowed. Naomi hears that the famine in Bethlehem has ended, so she makes plans to return. She urges Ruth and Orpah to go back to their original households, where they might have a better chance at security. Orpah obeys but Ruth clings to Naomi in a demonstration of profound love and loyalty (Hebrew: hesed), and the two women travel to Bethlehem together.

Naomi seeks out an affluent relative of Elimelech’s named Boaz, and Ruth gleans in his fields according to Israel’s “welfare” law (Lev. 19:9; 23:22). Boaz notices her, and he is astounded by her demonstration of hesed to Naomi. He then blesses Ruth, praying that she may find refuge under the “wings” (kanaf) of God. Later, at the encouragement of Naomi, Ruth seeks out Boaz during a harvest celebration and uncovers his feet (sometimes a euphemism for male genitalia), proposing, “Spread the hem of your garment [kanaf] over your handmaid because you are a kinsman-redeemer [go’el]” (Ruth 3:9 AT). Boaz becomes the answer to his own prayer for Ruth! Since Boaz is not the closest eligible male to act as go’el and to husband Ruth, he convenes a panel of elders as witnesses and gets permission from the primary go’el to marry her. In the end, Ruth marries Boaz and gives birth to a son, Obed, the grandfather of King David.

Although God is rarely mentioned in Ruth, this short book offers numerous illustrations of God’s hesed. It also contains strong theological themes of famine and fertility. Finally, Ruth informs a theological lens on immigration by exemplifying God’s love for and work through not just the Israelites but all people.

Study Questions

• Compare the story and fate of Ruth to those of Abraham and Sarah. What similar themes and theological takeaways emerge?
• Describe the ways in which changes to the agricultural environment act as a literary device in Ruth. What morals or messages might someone from the world “behind the text” take away from this symbolism?
• Why was fertility an important motif in cultures of the ancient Near East? Use examples from Ruth to justify your thinking.
• How might the book of Ruth inform our theological perspective on issues of immigration today? Describe some of the opportunities and limitations of this lens.
• Although God is rarely mentioned in the book of Ruth, how might it help us to understand God’s hesed? Use examples of hesed from multiple characters to exemplify your answer.
• In what ways does the book of Ruth offer us a window into the society and culture of the ancient Near East? Name at least two of the legal and ethical practices Ruth highlights.

Chapter 13: 1-2 Samuel

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 1 and 2 Samuel, followed by a discussion of their theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, 1–2 Samuel was likely compiled by the Deuteronomistic Historian around 620 BCE in Jerusalem, with a second edition produced around 560 BCE in Babylon. The Deuteronomistic Historian draws upon several sources, including the Ark Narrative, the narrative of David’s rise to power, the Succession Narrative, and ancient hymns, to tell the stories of the prophet and judge Samuel; his mother, Hannah; and the first two kings of Israel, Saul and David. As a theological-historical narrative, 1–2 Samuel highlights theological and ethical truths about God and God’s relationship with Israel, while also recalling major events in Israel’s history. Several archaeological discoveries help us today to make sense of some of these events.

In terms of the world “in the text,” 1–2 Samuel covers Israel’s history from about 1020 to 960 BCE, as Israel transitioned from a fragmented nation governed by a series of judges to a united monarchy ruled by one king. First Samuel 1 opens with the story of a barren woman named Hannah, who prays to God and is gifted a son, Samuel. Samuel is called by God when he is just a boy, serving an elderly priest, Eli. He serves as a judge and prophet until the people demand a king. Although Samuel warns them that a king will bring economic and militaristic domination, the people persist, and God therefore commands Samuel to anoint a man named Saul as king. Saul proves to be a victorious king in battles against rival nations, but he is also rash and reckless. Eventually, Saul anoints a young boy named David, who moves from musician to warrior in Saul’s court. David becomes best friends with Saul’s son Jonathan and even marries Saul’s daughter Michal. When Saul gets jealous of David’s popularity and success, he tries to kill him, so Jonathan and Michal help David escape. First Samuel ends by describing how the Philistines defeat Saul and sentence him and Jonathan to death.

In 2 Samuel, David is crowned king of Judah, and Ishbaal, son of Saul, is crowned king of some of the northern tribes until, two years later, David prevails as king of all. His first act as king of Israel is to take back the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites and make it the capital. In a lively ceremony, he transfers the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem, thereby honoring God as the center of the kingdom, Lord of all. This is the start of the united monarchy. He then attempts to build a house for God, but God refuses. Through the prophet Nathan, God creates a new covenant with David, declaring, “The Lord will make you a house. . . . I will raise up your offspring after you. . . . And I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever” (2 Sam. 7:11–13). Throughout the remainder of his reign, David succeeds in war and foreign policy but struggles in his personal life, committing adultery with a woman named Bathsheba—a tragedy that ends with the death of her husband and her child. The remainder of 2 Samuel recalls similar stories of sin in the house of David.

Throughout 1–2 Samuel, God is active and present through the ark of the covenant as well as through prophets like Samuel and Nathan. Despite Israel’s incessant disobedience and insistence on surrendering their status as a unique, chosen people ruled by God and God alone, the Lord remains faithful and present to them, renewing promises of loyalty and forgiveness.

Study Questions

• Summarize the terms of the Davidic covenant as recorded in 2 Samuel 7. How do God’s promises to David compare to those of the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants?
• Through what means is God active and present throughout 1–2 Samuel? Give at least two examples from the text.
• In what ways is David a successful, admirable king and person of faith? In what ways does he fail?
• Describe the symbolic significance of the ark of the covenant in 1–2 Samuel. What does the ark illustrate about God’s character and relationship with Israel?
• How do the narratives in 1–2 Samuel both mirror and extend those of Exodus? Give at least three examples from the text.
• Upon the rise of kings in Israel, how does the role of the prophets change? Use the prophet Nathan to exemplify your thinking.
• How do extrabiblical sources from the world “behind the text” of 1–2 Samuel help us make sense of the world “in the text”? Name at least two of these sources and their theological-historical significance.

Chapter 14: 1-2 Kings

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 1 and 2 Kings, followed by a discussion of their theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, 1–2 Kings was likely first compiled by the Deuteronomistic Historian around 630 BCE in Jerusalem. This historian drew on sources such as the Book of the Annals of the Kings of Israel to record Israel’s history from 960 to 586 BCE. However, the primary import of 1–2 Kings is not so much historical as theological—an attempt to explain why Israel and Judah fell and what God’s plan for the people might be.

The book of 1 Kings opens with the death of King David and the reign of King Solomon, one of the most influential kings in Israel’s history. When Solomon first comes to power, God appears to him in a vision. Rather than asking God for prosperity or long life, Solomon asks for the wisdom to rule justly. Soon after, Solomon decides to build a temple for God in God’s name. The temple is magnificent in size and detail and earns Solomon high esteem among foreign leaders, but its construction is incredibly expensive, and it requires an extensive amount of forced labor. Thus, several tribes, led by Jeroboam of Ephraim, revolt against Solomon. Eventually, the northern tribes secede entirely, thereby ushering in the period of the divided kingdom, with Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The remainder of 1 Kings and most of 2 Kings recall the reign of each succeeding king from the two kingdoms. During this time, the prophets—including Elijah, Micaiah, and Elisha—remain active vessels of divine intervention, checking the kings’ powers and calling them to faithfulness.

The book of 2 Kings reports the expansion of the Assyrian Empire across the ancient Near East in the eighth century BCE, forcing Israel to become a vassal state. After three years of occupation and failed attempts at revolt, Assyria destroys Israel’s capital city of Samaria in 722/721 BCE and sends the people into exile. The Assyrians try to take Judah as well, but King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah fend them off. When Hezekiah dies, his son Manasseh succeeds him, but he is Judah’s most unfaithful king yet, engaging in idol worship and killing many innocent people. By contrast, Manasseh’s grandson Josiah is devout, and he leads the nation in a political, moral, and religious reformation. Josiah renovates the temple and rediscovers “the book of the law” (likely Deuteronomy; 2 Kings 22:8). Soon after, the Babylonians rise as the dominant empire. They take over Jerusalem and force many of the people into exile (the first deportation). Later, when Judah tries to rebel, Babylon again prevails, this time destroying the city and sending a second wave into exile (the second deportation).

Second Kings ends on a surprising note, with a description of how King Jehoiachin of Judah is released from prison and offered a seat of honor at the table of the Babylonian emperor. The question therefore remains: What will the Lord do with this chosen-and-promised people who cannot serve him, but to whom he is committed?

Study Questions

• In what ways does Solomon serve as a strong leader and role model of faith? In what ways does he fail?
• What are the primary parts of the regnal formula used throughout 1–2 Kings? Exemplify the formula using a leader from your favorite fiction series.
• Summarize the theology of the temple. What theological issue arises when Israel splits from Judah, and how is it addressed?
• What roles do the prophets play in 1–2 Kings? Give at least three examples from the text.
• How does the DH interpret the fall of Israel to Assyria from a theological standpoint? What actions lead to this downfall?
• How does 1–2 Kings characterize God? And how is God’s agency manifested?
• Scholars debate whether or not the DH expresses hope for Israel’s future at the end of 2 Kings. What do you think? Use evidence from the text to support your answer.

Chapter 15: 1-2 Chronicles

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of 1 and 2 Chronicles, followed by a discussion of their theological themes and historical background.2

In terms of historical background, very little is known for certain about the composition of 1–2 Chronicles. Based on its emphasis on the temple, some scholars believe that 1–2 Chronicles was first compiled during the Persian period (539–333 BCE) around the rededication of the temple, but other textual evidence points to a composition date within the Hellenistic period (333–63 BCE). Scholars also debate whether 1–2 Chronicles is the work of a single author or multiple scribes. Therefore, the term the Chronicler is commonly used to describe the compiler of 1–2 Chronicles as well as of Ezra and Nehemiah. These books make up the “Chronistic History.”

The books of 1–2 Chronicles cover a similar time period as Genesis through 2 Kings. However, the Chronicler leaves out several major events, like the exodus, and there is no mention of the Northern Kingdom. Instead, 1–2 Chronicles focuses on the Southern Kingdom and the events following the death of King Saul and the anointing of King David. The first nine chapters of 1 Chronicles are filled with genealogies, starting with Adam but later paying special attention to the tribes of Benjamin and Levi and the Davidic line. Chapter 10 then describes Saul’s death and the end of his household due to his unfaithfulness to God. The remainder of 1 Chronicles features the reign of King David, with special emphasis on David’s success as a leader, warrior, and servant of God. Unlike Samuel-Kings, 1–2 Chronicles largely omits David’s sinful past, including his affair with Bathsheba, the murder of Uriah, and the violent crimes of his sons. Instead, the Chronicler continuously praises David and even credits him with initiating the construction of the temple.

Second Chronicles begins with the reign of Solomon and the completion of the temple. Like David, Solomon is portrayed more favorably than in Samuel-Kings, and there is no mention of his bouts of idolatry and infidelity. The second half of 2 Chronicles narrates the history of the divided kingdom up to the destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of Babylon. Again, while some of this material aligns with that of 1–2 Kings, much is different. For example, 2 Kings frames Manasseh as the primary cause of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem, but in Chronicles he is a model of penitence. Instead, the Chronicler blames the exile on the faithlessness of Zedekiah (Judah’s last king), the leaders of the priests, and the people themselves. Also, while 2 Kings ends with the release of King Jehoiachin of Judah from prison in Babylon, Chronicles ends with the decree of Cyrus of Persia, allowing the exiles to return to the land and charging them to rebuild the temple. Both books end on a hopeful note, but for 1–2 Chronicles, this hope is focused on the restoration of the temple.

Through its unique and sometimes controversial views on Israel’s history, 1–2 Chronicles preserves theological diversity and disputation within the biblical canon. In doing so, it challenges readers to view discrepancies in Scripture not as problems to be solved but as realities to be wrestled with. It also raises many theological questions for readers, such as why elevate the reigns of David and Solomon? And why center much of the narrative around the temple?

Study Questions

• Describe the possible world “behind the text” of 1–2 Chronicles. How do differences between 1–2 Chronicles and Samuel-Kings help us understand this world and the Chronicler’s theology?
• When studying 1–2 Chronicles, why is it important to pay attention to both what is written and omitted? Use the Chronicler’s portrayal of David to exemplify your answer.
• At the beginning of 1 Chronicles, what lines of descent are highlighted? Why do these genealogies matter to how we interpret 1–2 Chronicles?
• What is the theological significance of the temple in 1–2 Chronicles? Use at least two examples from the text to support your answer.
• Compare the ending of 2 Kings with that of 2 Chronicles. What is the theological significance of each?
• In what ways does the Chronicler centralize the Torah in the telling of Israel’s history? Use at least two examples from the text to support your answer.
• How might 1–2 Chronicles help modern readers frame their understanding of theological diversity and disputation? Do you think readers from your tradition would, in general, embrace this renewed understanding or struggle with it?

Chapter 16: Ezra-Nehemiah

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Ezra and Nehemiah, followed by a discussion of their theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, linguistic clues suggest that the books of Ezra and Nehemiah were originally one work, composed sometime after the fifth century BCE. Unlike earlier works in the Old Testament, Ezra-Nehemiah is a bilingual text, written primarily in Hebrew but with some Aramaic mixed in. Although it is unknown who or how many scribes compiled this text, many historians credit it to the same “Chronicler” believed to be behind the composition of 1–2 Chronicles.

Set in the Persian period, Ezra-Nehemiah begins with the edict from King Cyrus of Persia allowing exiled Jews to return home to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple of the Lord. A total of 42,360 supposedly return, and under the leadership of Jeshua and Zerubbabel, they lay the foundation of what will become known as the second temple. This stirs up tension between the returnees and the local population, but the reconstruction is eventually completed. Around this time, the Persian king Artaxerxes gives a priest named Ezra an official letter, authorizing him to govern Judah according to the laws of the “God of Heaven.” Ezra lives out this call by finishing the temple and by addressing issues of intermarriage between Jews and people of other ethnicities living in Judah. After what he perceives as a prayerful discernment, Ezra expels foreign women and their offspring—a disturbing decision considering the powerlessness and vulnerability of women and orphans in the ancient Near East’s patriarchal social structure.

Here, the narrative switches over to Nehemiah. At first, Nehemiah is serving as a cupbearer to the Persian king. However, when he hears of the ruinous state of Jerusalem, he petitions the king to send him home to oversee the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls. The king grants his request. Despite the mockery and adversity Nehemiah receives from a cast of characters, he completes the project and registers the people. Toward the end of the text, Ezra makes a reappearance in the narrative, teaching and leading the people in the ways of the Torah. Ezra-Nehemiah then concludes with a final prayer from Nehemiah who pleads for God to remember how the priesthood was defiled and how he cleansed it from foreign influence.

While Ezra-Nehemiah focuses on the Jews who returned to Jerusalem, it is important to note that not all Jews made their way back. Some who fled the destruction of 586 BCE relocated to Egypt and other parts of Africa, Europe, and the ancient Near East. That is why historians call this event the “diaspora.” Between the exile, diaspora, and return to Jerusalem, the Jewish people make a profound shift in identity. They go from being one holy nation, with a holy king, a holy land, and a holy space (the temple), to one holy people (the Jews), with a holy book (“the scroll of the law of Moses”), a holy law, and a holy priesthood as leaders. Therefore, recurring emphases on promise and fulfillment, obedience to the law, and the temple emerge as major theological themes throughout Ezra-Nehemiah.

Study Questions

• In what ways does Ezra-Nehemiah underscore the significance of obedience to the Torah? What might this suggest about how the compiler(s) understood the theological significance of the exile and the return to the land?
• Describe one major social or theological challenge the people faced upon their return to Jerusalem. How did they address this challenge?
• Give one example of how the theological theme of promise and fulfillment comes to light in Ezra-Nehemiah. What does this theme suggest about Ezra-Nehemiah’s understanding of God and God’s relationship with the people?
• Compare the characters Ezra and Nehemiah. What concerns did they hold in common, and what unique challenges did they face?
• Who were the “foreign” people in the land? What threats did they apparently pose to the returnees?
• What was the religious and social significance of the second temple? What steps did the people take to “protect” it?
• What clues does language give us about the composition of Ezra-Nehemiah? What questions about its composition are yet unanswered?

Chapter 17: Esther

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Esther, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

Esther is a humorous, ironic, and, at times, absurd piece of literature classified as a “court tale.” The narrative was likely composed during the Persian period, in which it is also set. There are actually three distinct versions of Esther: one in Hebrew and two in Greek. Very little is known about the authorship of any version of Esther. It is likely that Esther is a fictional work created to illustrate socioreligious truths during a particularly strenuous point in Jewish history, a time characterized by forced relocation, negotiation of cultural identity, external threats, and imperial domination.

The book of Esther opens with a banquet 180 days long, hosted by King Ahasuerus of Persia. On the last day, the drunken king orders his wife, Queen Vashti, to make an appearance, so he can show off her beauty to his guests. Vashti refuses, and Ahasuerus drafts a royal edict banning her from his presence forever. Now queenless, the king holds a beauty contest of virgins from around the kingdom to determine his next bride. Esther, a young girl, wins the favor of the king. However, Esther never reveals her identity as a Jew, according to the advice of her protective uncle, Mordecai. Meanwhile, the king’s top official, Haman, develops a murderous grudge against Mordecai, who refused to bow before him. Haman then tricks the gullible King Ahasuerus into drafting another edict, this time ordering the extermination of all the Jews. When Mordecai learns of Haman’s wicked plot, he convinces Esther to intercede on behalf of their people. “Who knows?” he offers. “Perhaps you arrived at royalty for such a time as this” (4:14 AT).

Esther courageously invites both the king and Haman to a feast that she prepares. The king has such a great time that he offers to grant her any request, but Esther simply asks the king to return for another feast. That night, the king is unable to sleep, so he requests a scribe to read the royal annals. In doing so, he is reminded that Mordecai once saved his life but was never thanked. Just then, Haman enters the king’s chambers to get permission to expedite Mordecai’s execution. However, when the king asks Haman about what should be done for the man “whom the king really wants to honor” (6:6 CEB), Haman (thinking of himself) immediately responds with a fantasy about such a man being paraded around the city. The king wholeheartedly agrees and assigns Haman, much to the latter’s dismay, to herald Mordecai’s praises. Later, at Esther’s second feast, Esther reveals all, including her Jewish identity and Haman’s dastardly plan. The king is speechless at first but soon after sends Haman to the gallows—the very gallows Haman intended for Mordecai—to be executed. King Ahasuerus also crafts a new law allowing the Jews to defend themselves on the thirteenth day of the twelfth month. On this date, the Jewish people muster together and fend off their assailants in an overwhelming victory. They therefore establish the festival of Purim to commemorate the occasion through feasting, gift giving, and charity to the poor.

Although Esther makes no mention of God, divine involvement may be implied throughout the story. For example, Mordecai is confident that even if Esther does not stand up for the Jews, “relief and deliverance will emerge for the Jews from elsewhere” (4:14 AT). This is a message of hope and trust not only in God but also in those whom God calls to do his work in the world.

Study Questions

• Describe the festival of Purim and its many traditions. How do the activities and overall atmosphere of Purim connect to particular aspects of the book of Esther?
• Identify at least three distinct types of humor expressed in the book of Esther. Do you think the author’s use of humor is effective as a literary device?
• Describe the world “behind the text.” How does Esther address some of the challenges the Jews faced?
• How does the book of Esther characterize King Ahasuerus, Haman, and Mordecai? What might this suggest about the viewpoints and attitudes of the Jews during the diaspora?
• Although there is no mention of God in the Hebrew version of Esther, where might the text imply divine involvement? Give at least two examples.
• What makes Esther so unique from other books in the Old Testament? Consider its literary style, background, and composition in your answer.
• What are the main features of a “court tale” in biblical literature? Use Esther to illustrate each one.

Chapter 18: Poetry, the Poetic Books, and Wisdom

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of biblical poetry and the poetic books of the Old Testament. The poetic books include Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs (or Song of Solomon). In the Jewish canon, the poetic books are part of the Ketuvim (Writings). No canon organizes these books chronologically. Rather, they are grouped together for their primary genre—Hebrew poetry.Such poems were originally intended to be spoken or sung.

Biblical poetry is similar to but distinct from modern poetry. The main units of Hebrew poetry are the line, the verse, and the stanza. Lines are kept short (two to six words in Hebrew) and do not have to be complete sentences. Two lines together form a verse, and verses come together to form stanzas. In rare cases, three lines may combine to create a specific kind of verse called a “triplet” or “tricola.” Oftentimes, the poet will pair words, lines, verses, and stanzas together to create one of the most quintessential features of Hebrew poetry: parallelism. These pairs may be classified as synonymous (where the second part says essentially the same as the first), antithetical (where the second says the opposite of the first), or synthetic (where the second is neither the same as nor the opposite of the first). For example, in the line “The Lord is my light and my salvation” from Psalm 27:1, the words “light” and “salvation” are synonymous, complimentary descriptions of “The Lord.” Sometimes, two entire poems may parallel one another, as is the case with Psalms 111 and 112.

Compared to prose, biblical poetry is briefer and considerably more concise. However, like prose, biblical poetry is filled with metaphors and similes. It is important for modern readers to interpret these illustrations through the lens and mindset of the ancient Near Eastern world of thought, using the world “behind the text” to develop a deeper, more accurate understanding of the world “within the text.”

Study Questions

• Describe the main differences between modern poetry and biblical poetry. Consider both the composition and purpose of each in your answer.
• Briefly define line, verse, and stanza in biblical poetry. Choose one psalm, and show how it incorporates all three components.
• What are the three types of parallelism? Give an example of each.
• How does biblical poetry differ from biblical prose? In both cases, why is it important to read them through the lens of the ancient Near Eastern world of thought?
• Study Psalm 8, and interpret it using the building blocks of biblical poetry. Be sure to identify examples of parallelism, metaphor, and simile.

Flashcards of Key Terms

Chapter 19: Job

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Job, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

In terms of historical background, most scholars believe Job was written by a single Judean author sometime after the exile. The book itself, however, is timeless in the sense that it does not mention any historically known places, figures, or events. Rather, the book of Job is most likely a work of fiction—an extended parable made up of poetry, prose, lament, wisdom discourse, and many other genres. This twisted, timeless story revolves around one twisted, timeless question: Why do the righteous suffer?

Job is introduced as the most righteous man alive. Even the Lord himself brags to “the Satan” (a member of the heavenly court whose role is to bring charges against sinners) that Job perfectly “fears God and turns away from evil” (1:8). Satan quickly retorts that Job is only righteous because God has been so good to him, so God gives Satan permission to put his theory to the test. In one day, Job suffers the destruction of his livestock, house, and children. Still, Job is “a blameless and upright man” (2:3). Satan again challenges God that Job is only faithful because he still has his health. Therefore, God gives Satan permission to strike Job with a terrible disease. Soon after, Job’s friends—Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar—come to comfort him in his misery. Upon seeing him, they weep, tear their clothes, throw dust in the air, and sit silently on the floor with him. After seven days, “Job opened his mouth and cursed the day of his birth” (3:1), but he never curses the Lord.

In a series of speeches, Job’s friends (cautiously at first but soon adamantly) argue that Job must have done something sinful to deserve such a severe punishment from God. Job maintains that he is innocent and prays to God for forgiveness and relief. The friends continue to preach at Job, insisting on his guilt, and Job grows increasingly angry and impatient with them. Finally, Job makes a reckless oath, swearing on his integrity and demanding to be judged before God. In the final scene of the book, Job gets his wish. God speaks “out of the whirlwind” (38:1) and takes Job on a long rhetorical tour around creation, asking if Job knows how any of it was created or how it works. Almost immediately, Job backs down, confessing, “I have uttered what I did not understand” (42:3 AT), and repenting, “I relent and am comforted over dust and ashes” (v. 6)[1].The book ends with God rebuking Job’s friends for their ignorance and restoring to Job twice as much wealth as he lost, as well as seven more sons and three daughters.

In terms of theological themes, Job debunks the myth that the universe is governed by a quid pro quo system of reward and punishment. Rather, it presents the universe as governed by the God of creation. Creation may be filled with chaotic, dangerous forces and creatures, but they are an integral part of the world God made. The book of Job also shows us that when we’re suffering, we can argue with God—even accuse God and yell! When others are suffering, we can comfort them by offering our presence, prayers, food, and gifts. Finally, the book of Job illustrates the true meaning of piety as religious devotion and moral behavior performed without the expectation of reward or favor.

[1] Translation of 42:6 is from William P. Brown, “Job and the ‘Comforting’ Chaos,” in Seeking Wisdom’s Depths and Torah’s Heights: Essays in Honor of Samuel E. Balentine, ed. Barry R. Huff and Patricia Vesely (Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2020), 252.

Study Questions

• What about the book of Job makes it a timeless piece of literature? Consider its setting, characters, and theology in your answer.
• What arguments do Job’s friends make to convince him he deserves his suffering? What arguments does Job offer in retort?
• Some readers have, historically, admired Job’s friends for their responses to his suffering. What (if any) of the friends’ actions or words do you find praiseworthy?
• How does the book of Job portray God? What other biblical portrayals of God does Job draw on?
• Compare several translations of Job 42:6. How do their subtle differences in wording dramatically alter the implications of the verse?
• What does the book of Job teach us about what we should do when we are suffering? What does it teach us to do for others who are suffering?
• Summarize the book of Job’s message on piety. What does it truly mean to be righteous before God?

Chapter 20: Psalms

Chapter Summary

This chapter offers a brief overview of the contents of Psalms, followed by a discussion of its theological themes and historical background.

The word psalms comes from the Greek word for “songs” and the Hebrew word for “praises” or “praise songs.” The book of Psalms, also known as the Psalter, is a collection of 150 hymns for individual and communal worship. The psalms were written by many different authors over many centuries in many locations. Accordingly, several smaller collections, such as the Psalms of Asaph and the Psalms of the Korahites, make up the book as a whole. When compiling the book of Psalms, scribes organized and divided these 150 hymns into five books by inserting a doxology (a group of words that expresses praise to God) between each book. It also appears scribes added phrases and verses to better connect psalms and to give liturgical instructions about their background and use. For instance, scribes wrote opening lines called superscriptions to convey information like to whom the psalm is attributed, the type of psalm (e.g., a maskil), liturgical cues (e.g., “for the leader”), and instrumentation (i.e., “on the gittith”). Since several superscriptions read something like “a psalm of David,” readers have, historically, viewed David as the author. However, it is more likely the psalms of David were those collected for use in the temple in the “City of David,” Jerusalem.

In the world of biblical studies, form criticism has become the most renowned method for interpreting the psalms. This approach involves classifying the psalms by form or genre and identifying the original purposes for which they were intended. For example, the most common form of psalm is the prayer for help or the lament psalm. In lament psalms, the individual (or sometimes community) identifies a situation of crisis, addresses God, voices a complaint, requests help, expresses trust in God, and promises to praise God upon deliverance. The promise to praise is not a bargaining tactic but an expression of trust, rooted in the belief that God has the power to transcend any crisis and bring salvation. The second most common form of psalm is the hymn of praise. These are communal testimonies about who God is and what God has done. Similarly, the psalms of thanksgiving also tell of who God is by what God has done for an individual or community, but while the hymns of praise primarily address God as the audience, the psalms of thanksgiving primarily address other humans as a way of sharing testimony about God. Finally, in the psalms of trust, an individual or community specifies a situation requiring trust (whether present or future, severe or common), describes their troubles, and describes the care they hope to receive from God.

Overall, the psalms revolve around the central theological theme of the faithfulness of God. In the psalmists’ eyes, the wonder, order, and beauty of all creation bear the fingerprints of God’s faithfulness. God proves faithful time and time again to his covenant promises to Abraham and Sarah and their descendants throughout history, despite the fact that Israel consistently proves unfaithful to God. The psalmists see themselves as part of the covenant people in deep relationship with God. Therefore, they thrust themselves upon God in faith, believing in God’s ability to alter their situations of crisis.

Study Questions

• How was the book of Psalms composed? What components were added later to the original psalms?
• In the psalms, what is a superscription? What sort of information might a superscription contain, and how might it help us understand the world “behind the text”?
• What are the main elements within a prayer for help or psalm of lament? Choose a psalm to exemplify your answer.
• What are the main elements within a hymn of praise? Choose a psalm to exemplify your answer.
• What are the main elements within a psalm of trust? Choose a psalm to exemplify your answer.
• What are the main elements within a psalm of thanksgiving? Choose a psalm to exemplify your answer.
• How do the psalms depict God’s agency vis-à-vis humanity’s agency? How is this distinction foundational to the theology of Psalms as a whole?